LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 

Gift  of 
Alfred  V/.    Rsa 


Cyclopedia 

of 

Architecture,  Carpentry 
and  Building 


A    General   Reference    Work 

ON        ARCHITECTURE,        CARPENTRY,        BUILDING,        SUPERINTENDENCE, 

CONTRACTS,    SPECIFICATIONS,    BUILDING    LAW,    STAIR-BUILDING, 

ESTIMATING,    MASONRY,    REINFORCED     CONCRETE,    STEEL 

CONSTRUCTION,   ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING,   SHEET 

METAL  WORK,  HEATING,  VENTILATING,  ETC. 


Prepared  by  a   Staff  of 

ARCHITECTS,    BUILDERS,    AND    EXPERTS    OF    THE    HIGHEST 
PROFESSIONAL    STANDING 


Illustrated  with  over  Three  Thousand  Engravings 


TEN    VOLUMES 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN   TECHNICAL   SOCIETY 
1907 


COPYRIGHT,  1907 

BY 
AMERICAN    SCHOOL   OF   CORRESPONDENCE 

COPYRIGHT,  H*07 

BY 
AMERICAN   TECHNICAL   SOCIETY 


.Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London, 
All  Rights  Reserved. 


'    ^  Planning 

I  il  "?'¥ 

TH 


Authors  and  Collaborators 


hi 


JAMES  C.  PLANT 

Superintendent  of  Computing  Division,   Office  of   Supervising   Architect,    Treasury, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


WALTER  LORING  WEBB,  C.  E. 

Consulting  Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of  "Railroad  Construction,"  " Economics  of  Railroad  Construction,"  etc. 


J.  R.  COOLIDGE,  JR.,  A.  M. 

Architect,  Boston. 

President,  Boston  Society  of  Architects. 

Acting  Director,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 


H.  V.  VON  HOLST,  A.  B.,  S.  B. 

Architect,  Chicago. 

V» 

FRED  T.  HODGSON 

Architect  and  Editor. 

Member  of  Ontario  Association  of  Architects. 

Author  of  "Modern  Carpentry,"  "Architectural  Drawing,  Self -Taught,"   "The  Steel 
Square,"  "Modern  Estimator,"  etc. 


ALFRED  E.  ZAPF,  S.  B. 

Secretary,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
V 

AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE 

Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of  "  Highway  Construction,"  "  Materials  and  Workmanship. 


HARRIS  C.  TROW,  S.  B. 

Editor  of  Text-book  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

^« 

WM.  H.  LAWRENCE,  S.  B. 

Associate  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


Authors  and  Collaborators — Continued 


EDWARD  NICHOLS 

Architect,  Boston. 

>• 

H.  W.  GARDNER,  S.  B. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Architecture,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


ALFRED  E.  PHILLIPS,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Armour  Institute  of  Technology. 
*• 

GEORGE  C.  SHAAD,  E.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
*• 

MORRIS  WILLIAMS 

Writer  and  Expert  on  Carpentry  and  Building. 
^« 

HERBERT  E.  EVERETT 

Department  of  Architecture,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


E.  L.  WALLACE,  B.  S. 

Instructor,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 


OTIS  W.  RICHARDSON,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar. 

*• 

WM.  G.  SNOW,  S.  B. 

Steam  Heating  Specialist. 

Author  of  "  Furnace  Heating,"  Joint-Author  of  "  Ventilation  of  Buildings/ 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 


W.  HERBERT  GIBSON,  C.  E. 

Expert  on  Reinforced  Concrete. 

ELIOT  N.  JONES,  LL.  B. 

Of  the  Boston  Bar. 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


R.  T.  MILLER,  JR.,  A.  M.,  LL.  B. 

President,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


WM.  NEUBECKER 

Instructor,  Sheet  Metal  Department  of  New  York  Trade  School. 


WM.  BEALL  GRAY 

Sanitary  Engineer. 

Member  of  National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers, 


EDWARD  MAURER,  B.  C.  E. 

Professor  of  Mechanics.  University  of  Wisconsin. 


EDWARD  A.  TUCKER,  S.  B. 

Architectural  Engineer. 

Member  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 


EDWARD  B.  WAITE 

Head  of  Instruction  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
Western  Society  of  Engineers. 


GEORGE  R.  METCALFE,  M.  E. 

Head  of  Technical  Publication  Department,  Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Formerly  Technical  Editor,  Street  Railway  Review. 

Formerly  Editor  of  Text-book  Department,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 


HENRY  M.  HYDE 

Author  and  Editor  "The  Technical  World  Magazine.' 


CHAS.  L.  HUBBARD,  S.  B.,  M.  E. 

Consulting  Engineer. 

With  S.  Homer  Woodbridge  Co.,  Heating,  Ventilating  and  Sanitary  Engineers. 


Authors  and  Collaborators— Continued 


FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston. 

Author  of  "Letters  and  Lettering." 


DAVID  A.  GREGG 

Teacher  and  Lecturer  in  Pen  and  Ink  Rendering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


CHAS.  B.  BALL 

Civil  and  Sanitary  Engineer. 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 


ERVIN  KENISON,  S.  B. 

Instructor  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


H.  C.  GUSHING,  JR. 

Consulting  Electrical  Engineer. 

Author  of  "Standard  Wiring  for  Electric  Light  and  Power.' 


JOHN  H.  JALLINGS 

Mechanical  Engineer. 


FRANK  A.  BOURNE,  S.  M.,  A.  A.  I.  A. 

Architect,  Boston. 

Special  Librarian,  Department  of  Fine  Arts,  Public  Library,  Boston. 


ALFRED  S.  JOHNSON,  Ph.  D. 

Formerly  Editor  "The  Technical  World  Magazine." 


GILBERT  TOWNSEND,  S.  B. 

With  Post  &  McCord,  New  York  City. 


HENRY  C.  BUCK,  A.  B.,  A.  M. 

Instructor,  American  School  of  Correspondence. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 


Authorities   Consulted 


THE   editors  have  freely  consulted  the  standard   technical  literature 
of  America  and  Europe  in  the  preparation  of  these  volumes.    They 
desire  to  express  their  indebtedness  particularly  to  the  following 
eminent  authorities  whose  well-known  works  should  be  in  the  library  of 
every  one  connected  with  building. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  here  made  also  for  the  invaluable  co- 
operation of  the  foremost  architects,  engineers,  and  builders  in  making 
these  volumes  thoroughly  representative  of  the  very  best  and  latest  prac- 
tice in  the  design  and  construction  of  buildings  ;  also  for  the  valuable 
drawings  and  data,  suggestions,  criticisms,  and  other  courtesies. 


J.  B.  JOHNSON,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Dean,  College  of  Mechanics  and  Engineering,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Author  of  "Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications,"  "Materials  of  Construction," 

Joint  Author  of  "Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of  Modern  Framed  Struc- 

tures. 


JOHN  CASSAN  WAIT,  M.  C.  E.,  LL.  B. 

Counsellor-at-Law  and  Consulting  Engineer  ;    Formerly  Assistant    Professor  of    En- 

gineering at  Harvard  University. 
Author  of  "Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence." 


T.  M.  CLARK 

Fellow  of  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects. 

Author  of  "Building  Superintendence,"  "Architect,   Builder  and  Owner  before  the 
Law." 


FRANK  E.  KIDDER,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D. 

Consulting  Architect  and  Structural  Engineer;  Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects. 

Author  of  "Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket-Book,"  "Building  Construction  and 
Superintendence;  Part  I,  Masons'  Work;  Part  II,  Carpenters'  Work;  Part  IU, 
Trussed  Roofs  and  Roof  Trusses."  "Churches  and  Chapels." 


AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE,  C.  E. 

Civil  Engineer. 

Author  of    "Inspection  of  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction,* 
"  Highway  Construction."  ^ 

W.  R.  WARE 

Formerly  Professor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  University. 
Author  of  "  Modern  Perspective." 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


CLARENCE  A.  MARTIN 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Cornell  University. 
Author  of  "  Details  of  Building  Construction.'' 

FRANK  N.  SNYDER 

Architect. 

Author  of  "  Building  Details." 

CHARLES  H.  SNOW 

Author  of  "  The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  Their  Characteristic  Properties.' 

OWEN  B.  MAGINNIS 

Author  of  "  How  to  Frame  a  House,  or  House  and  Roof  Framing." 


HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  for  Contractors  and  Engineers." 

OLIVER  COLEMAN 

Author  of  "  Successful  Houses." 

^ 

CHAS.  E.  GREENE,  A.  M.,  C.  E. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Michigan. 
Author  of  "  Structural  Mechanics." 

LOUIS  de  C.  BERG 

Author  of  "Safe  Building." 

GAETANO  LANZA,  S.  B.,  C.  &  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Theoretical  and  Applied  Mechanics,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
Author  of  "  Applied  Mechanics." 

IRA  0.  BAKER 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 
Author  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction." 

GEORGE  P.  MERRILL 

Author  of  "Stonss  for  Building  and  Decoration." 


FREDERICK  W.  TAYLOR,  M.E.  and  SANFORD  E.  THOMPSON,  S.B.,C.E. 

Joint  Authors  of  "  A  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced." 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


A.  W.  BUEL  and  C.  S.  HILL 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Reinforced  Concrete." 

*• 

NEWTON  HARRISON,  E.  E. 

Author  of  "  Electric  Wiring,  Diagrams  and  Switchboards." 


FRANCIS  B.  CROCKER,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D. 

Head  of  Department  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Columbia  University  ;  Past  President, 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 
Author  of  "  Electric  Lighting." 


J.  R.  CRAVATH  and  V.  R.  LANSINGH 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Practical  Illumination." 


JOSEPH  KENDALL  FREITAG,  B.  S.,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Architectural  Engineering,  "  Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings." 

V 

WILLIAM  H.  BIRKMIRE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "  Planning  and  Construction  of  High  Office  Buildings,"  "Architectural  Iron 
and  Steel,  and  Its  Application  in  the  Construction  of  Buildings,"  "Compound 
Riveted  Girders,"  "Skeleton  Structures,"  etc. 


EVERETT  U.  CROSBY  and  HENRY  A.  FISKE 

Joint  Authors  of  "  Handbook  of  Fire  Protection  for  Improved  Risk." 

V» 
CARNEGIE  STEEL  COMPANY 

Authors  of  "  Pocket  Companion,  Containing  Useful  Information  and  Tables  Appertain- 
ing to  the  Use  of  Steel." 

J.  C.  TRAUTWINE,  C.  E. 

Author  of  "Civil  Engineers'  Pocket  Book." 
* 

ALPHA  PIERCE  JAMISON,  M.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Purdue  University. 
Author  of  "  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing." 

V« 

.FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston. 

Author  of  "  Letters  and  Lettering." 


Authorities  Consulted— Continued 


HENRY  McGOODWIN 

Author  of  "Architectural  Shades  and  Shadows." 
V 

VIGNOLA 

Author  of  "  The  Five  Orders  of  Architecture,"  American  Edition  by  Prof.  Ware. 


CHAS.  D.  MAGINNIS 

Author  of  "  Pen  Drawing,  An  Illustrated  ii'eatise." 

^ 
FRANZ  S.  MEYER 

Professor  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Art  ~r    Karlsruhe. 
Author  of  "  Handbook  of  Ornament,"  Arr  erican  Edition. 

V 

RUSSELL  STURGIS 

Author  of  "A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building,"  and  "How  to  Judge  Archi- 
tecture." 


A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN,  A.  M. 

Professor  of  Architecture  at  Columbia  University. 
Author  of  "A  Text-book  of  the  History  of  Architecture." 


RALPH  ADAMS  CRAM 

Architect. 

Author  of  "  Church  Building." 


C.  H.  MOORE 

Author  of  "  Development  and  Character  of  Gothic  Architecture.' 

V 

ROLL  A  C.  CARPENTER,  C.  E.,  M.  M.  E. 

Professor  of  Experimental  Engineering,  Cornell  University. 
Author  of  "  Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings." 

^ 

WILLIAM  PAUL  GERHARD 

Author  of  "  A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection." 

V» 

I.  J.  COSGROVE 

Author  of  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Plumbing." 


Foreword 


HE  rapid  evolution  of  constructive  methods  in  recent 
.  years,  as  illustrated  in  the  use  of  steel  and  concrete, 
and  the  increased  size  and  complexity  of  buildings. 
has  created  the  necessity  for  an  authority  which  bhall 
embody  accumulated  experience  and  approved  practice  along  a 
variety  of  correlated  lines.  The  Cyclopedia  of  Architecture, 
Carpentry,  and  Building  is  designed  to  till  this  acknowledged 
need. 

C.  There  is  no  industry  that  compares  with  Building  in  the 
close  interdependence  of  its  subsidiary  trades.  The  Architect, 
for  example,  who  knows  nothing  of  Steel  or  Concrete  con- 
struction is  to-day  as  much  out  of  place  on  important  work 
as  the  Contractor  who  cannot  make  intelligent  estimates,  or  who 
understands  nothing  of  his  legal  rights  and  responsibilities.  A 
carpenter  must  now  know  something  of  Masonry,  Electric  Wiring, 
and,  in  fact,  all  other  trades  employed  in  the  erection  of  a  build- 
ing  ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  all  the  craftsmen  whose  handiwork 
will  enter  into  the  completed  structure. 

C.  Neither  pains  nor  expense  have  been  spared  to  make  the 
present  work  the  most  -comprehensive  and  authoritative  on  the 
subject  of  Building  and  its  allied  industries.  The  aim  has  been, 
not  merely  to  create  a  work  which  will  appeal  to  the  trained 


expert,  but  one  that  will  commend  itself  also  to  the  beginner 
and  the  self-taught,  practical  man  by  giving  him  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  principles  and  methods,  not  only  of  his  own 
particular  trade,  but  of  all  other  branches  of  the  Building  Indus- 
try as  well.  The  various  sections  have  been  prepared  especially 
for  home  study,  each  written  by  an  acknowledged  authority  on 
the  subject.  The  arrangement  of  matter  is  such  as  to  carry  the 
student  forward  by  easy  stages.  Series  of  review  questions  are 
inserted  in  each  volume,  enabling  the  reader  to  test  his  knowl- 
edge and  make  it  a  permanent  possession.  The  illustrations  have 
been  selected  with  unusual  care  to  elucidate  the  text, 

C.  The  work  will  be  found  to  cover  many  important  topics  on 
which  little  information  has  heretofore  been  available.  This  is 
especially  apparent  in  such  sections  as  those  on  Steel,  Concrete, 
and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction;  Building  Superintendence; 
Estimating;  Contracts  and  Specifications,  including  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  awarding  and  executing  Government  con- 
tracts ;  and  Building  Law. 

The  method  adopted  in  the  preparation  of  the  work  is  that 
which  the  American  School  of  Correspondence  has  developed 
and  employed  so  successfully  for  many  years.  It  is  not  an 
experiment,  but  has  stood  the  severest  of  all  tests  —  that  of  prac- 
tical use — which  has  demonstrated  it  to  be  the  best  method 
yet  devised  for  the  education  of  the  busy  working  man. 

In  conclusion,  grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  the  staff  of 
authors  and  collaborators,  without  whose  hearty  co-operation 
this  work  would  have  been  impossible. 


Table  of  Contents 


VOLUME  I 
BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE      .       .       By  Edward  Nichols  t       Page  *1L 

Selection  of  Site  — Cellar  Work  and  Foundations-  Cesspools  and  Drains  — 
Framing  Walls,  Roofs,  and  Partitions  —  Mason  Work  —  Eleciric  Wiring  — 
Outside  Finish  —  Lathing  and  Plastering  —  Concreting  —  Fireplaces  —  Plumb- 
ing—Furnace Heating  — Steam  Heating  —  Hot- Water  Heating  —  Inside  Finish 

—  Hardware  —  Painting  —  Decorating—  Glazing  —  Brickwork  —  Stone  Masonry 

—  Columns,   Arches,   and  Trimmings  —  Roofing  and  Metal  Work  — Windows  — 
Skylights — Iron     and    Steel    Supports  —  Floor    Beams  —  Tiling    and  Mosaic  — 
Fireproof  Vaults  — Fireproof  Building  -  Terra-Cotta  Floor  Arches  —  Concrete 
Floors  —  Exterior  Walls 

CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS,  Part  I         By  James  C.  Plant       Page  207 

General  Province  of  the  Specification  — Studies  in  Materials  —  Sample  Specifica- 
tions—Rights,  Duties,  and  Responsibilities  of  Owner,  Architect,  and  Contractor 

—  Method  of  Payment  —  Time  Limit  —  Various  Details  of  Construction  ( Masonry, 
Carpentry,  Heating,  etc.)  —  Form  of  Proposal  Sheet  — Awarding  the  Contract  — 
Form  of  Agreement  between  Owner  and  Contractor  —  Architect's  Certificate  to 
Contractor  —  Contractor's  Receipt  to  Owner —  Owner's  Receipt  to  Contractor  for 
Insurance  Policies  —  Government  Contracts  — Specimen  Form  of   Government 
Contract  —  Form  of  Bond 

CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS,  Part  II     Edited  by  A.  E.  Zapf      Page  273" 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Specification  —  Memorandum  Specification  —  What  should 
be  Included  in  the  Specification?  What  Omitted  ?  —Ambiguous  Terms  —  Relation 
of  Specification  to  Working  Drawings  —  Marginal  Sketches  — Use  of  Card 
System  —  The  Specification  Reminder  — Sub-Contractors  and  Specialists  — 
Typical  Form  of  Detailed  Specification 

BUILDING  LAW      .        By  Eliot  N.  Jones  and  Otis  W.  Richardson        Page  315- 

Law  of  Contracts  —  Express  and  Implied  Contracts  —  Parties  Competent  to  Enter 
into  Contracts  —  Consent  —  Consideration  —  Statute  of  Frauds — Conditional 
Contracts  —  Construction  of  Contracts  —  Assignment  of  Contracts  —  Avoidance 
of  Contracts  —  Reforming  Contracts  —  Penalties  and  Liquidated  Damages  — 
Discharge  of  Contract— Waiver —  Modification—  Suretyship  —Law  of  Agency  — 
Powers  of  Agent  — Liens— Torts  — Mutual  Rights,  Duties,  and  Liabilities  of 
Owner,  Architect,  and  Contractor  — Certificates  — Settlement  of  Disputes  — 
Inspection  —  Limit  of  Cost  —  Architects  as  Public  Officials  —  Competitions  — 
Ownership  of  Plans 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS       .        .        .       .        .       .       .       .       .        Page  371 


*  For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 

+  For  professional  standing  of  authors,  see  list  of  Authors  and  Collaborators  at 
front  of  volume. 


GRACE  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Cram,  Goodhue  &  Ferguson,  Architects,  New  York  and  Boston 
Exterior  of  Bedford  Stone.    For  Interiors,  See  Volumes  II  and  III 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

PART  I. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  superintendence  of  building  operations  is  one  of  the  most 
important,  and  at  times  one  of  the  most  perplexing  duties  which  an 
architect  is  called  upon  to  perform.  Plans  may  have  been  prepared 
with  the  greatest  of  skill  and  elaboration,  and  details  may  have  been 
worked  out  to  a  marvel  of  perfection;  and  yet  by  the  want  of  atten- 
tion given  at  the  proper  time,  costly  mistakes  may  be  made  and 
results  attained  which  are  a  source  of  annoyance  and  expense  to  the 
owner,  and  often  a  lasting  discredit  to  both  architect  and  builder. 
It  is  only  by  constant  watchfulness  and  by  the  exercise  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  common  practices  and  materials,  that  these  errors  can 
be  avoided,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  architect,  as  superintendent,  and 
a  just  and  impartial  referee  between  the  owner  and  the  builder,  to 
acquire  this  knowledge  and  to  exercise  it  freely  and  decisively. 

The  owner,  who  has  secured  the  services  of  an  architect,  will 
naturally  expect  from  him  something  more  than  the  builder  could  have 
furnished.  Superiority  in  matters  of  taste  he  will  expect  as  a  matter 
of  course,  and  beyond  this  a  superior  knowledge  of  materials  and  con- 
struction ;  and  an  executive  ability  to  handle  men  and  direct  the  many 
forces  which  must  be  applied  to  obtain  a  certain  and  satisfactory 
result.  The  architect  should  possess  then,  as  superintendent,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  materials  at  his  disposal  and  should  see 
clearly  before  him,  in  his  mind's  eye,  the  building  which  he  proposes 
to  erect.  To  do  this,  he  must  know  how  all  the  various  elements  of 
the  building  are  to  be  assembled  and  moulded  into  a  complete  whole. 

To  a  familiarity  with  details  must  be  added  such  a  quickness 
of  perception  and  soundness  of  judgment,  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  any  bad  work  to  escape  his  notice,  and  to  this  knowledge  of  the 
general  principles  of  building,  he  must  add  an  understanding  of 
principles  and  possibilities  far  beyond  that  of  the  builder,  so  that 
he  can  foresee  causes  and  effects  and  guard  against  any  waste  of 


11 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


effort  or  of  time.  In  his  position  of  referee,  he  must  show  such  a 
familiarity  with  building  matters  that  his  judgment  will  be  respected 
by  both  owner  and  builder;  and  he  must  have  confidence  that  his 
opinions  are  correct,  and  having  rendered  a  decision  he  must  stick 
to  it,  for  if  he  shows  weakness  or  indecision  it  will  not  take  long  for 
the  workmen  to  discover  it,  and  he  will  be  discredited  and  very  likely 
will  be  imposed  upon.  It  will  not  do  for  the  architect  to  trust  too 
much  to  the  generosity  of  the  owner,  or  to  the  liberal  intentions  of 
the  builder;  for  it  is  likely  to  be  the  case  that  both  are  at  the  same  time 
trusting  in  the  ability  of  the  architect  and  the  clearness  of  his  foresight. 

Relations  with  the  Owner  and  Contractor.  It  is  important 
to  have  as  early  as  possible  a  clear  understanding  of  what  is  to 
be  expected  by  the  owner,  and  to  have  him  understand  as  clearly 
what  is  due  to  him  from  the  architect.  The  owner,  in  his  implicit 
confidence  and  trust  in  the  foresight  of  the  architect,  is  likely  to  visit 
upon  him  the  blame  for  failures  of  particular  construction,  which 
can  only  be  avoided  by  the  care  of  superior  workmen  under  the  con- 
stant watchfulness  of  the  builder  or  an  ever  alert  clerk-of-the- works; 
and  it  is  well  for  the  architect  to  have  it  understood  at  the  beginning 
that  he  cannot  always  be  present  and  that  he  cannot  in  ordinary 
practice,  guarantee  perfection  of  plan  or  execution,  but  can  agree 
to  exercise  reasonable  care  and  observation. 

With  the  contractor  it  should  be  clearly  understood  at  the  begin- 
ning that  the  work  is  to  be  done  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  draw- 
ings and  specifications,  that  the  materials  are  to  be  as  called  for,  the 
workmen  to  be  competent,  and  the  builder  himself  interested  and 
capable.  If  any  material  appears  upon  the  site  which  is  unfit,  it 
should  be  rejected  at  once  and  finally,  for  any  laxity  or  indecision 
upon  this  point  at  the  start  will  be  sure  to  be  taken  advantage  of, 
and  will  be  a  precedent  for  future  indifference.  Any  work  not  care- 
fully done,  or  in  accordance  with  drawings  must  be  at  once  taken 
down,  in  the  presence  of  the  architect  if  possible,  and  any  mistakes 
discovered  should  be  noted  before  they  are  forgotten  or  crowded 
aside  by  other  details. 

Familiarity  with  Site.  Of  prime  importance  to  the  architect 
in  starting  a  new  building  is  a  familiarity  with  the  site  and  with 
local  conditions  and  customs,  and  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  him  to 
make  the  greatest  possible  use  of  the  time  usually  spent  in  prelimi- 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


nary  visits  to  the  locality,  to  observe  what  is  being,  or  has  been  done 
in  the  vicinity.  The  more  familiar  the  architect  is  with  local  customs 
or  possibilities,  the  more  efficient  will  his  supervision  of  that  particu- 
lar building  become,  that  he  may  reject  practices  which  are  bad  and 
profit  by  those  which  are  good.  There  are  very  few  buildings  erected 
from  which  the  young  architect  cannot  learn  something,  and  it  is 
an  unprogressive  builder  who  has  not  some  particular  method  which 
will  be  new  to  the  superintendent. 

Drawings.  Another  essential,  and  one  of  greatest  importance, 
is  that  the  superintendent  should  have  a  perfect  understanding  of  the 
drawings  and  specifications.  If  they  have  been  prepared  by  the 
architect  who  is  to  superintend  the  work,  an  understanding  is  assured, 
but  even  in  this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  consult  the  plans  often, 
lest  something  be  overlooked  or  confused  with  some  other  building 
which  the  architect  may  have  in  mind.  It  will  also  be  of  service  in 
enabling  him  to  look  ahead,  and  to  prevent  many  unintentional  devia- 
tions which  may  cause  delay  or  damage  to  the  construction  if  once 
started  upon,  through  carelessness  or  unfamiliarity  on  the  part  of  the 
builder,  or  of  the  foreman  upon  whom  will  devolve  many  of  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  of  modern  building  operations. 

With  the  foreman  an  understanding  should  be  had  at  once  that 
he  is  to  work  with  the  architect,  and  not  against  him.  It  is  poor 
policy  for  the  architect  to  ignore  suggestions  made  by  the  foreman, 
for  if  he  is  a  thorough  mechanic  of  ability  and  foresight,  as  the  fore- 
man of  a  building  of  any  importance  should  be,  he  will  often  be  in  a 
position  to  save  the  owner  from  needless  expense,  and  the  architect 
from  many  of  the  vexatious  conditions  and  minor  complications 
which  often  arise  in  ordinary  building  transactions.  The  foreman, 
as  well  as  the  master  builder  himself,  should  receive  personal  instruc- 
tion from  the  architect,  and  should  be  particularly  instructed  to  look 
the  drawings  over  carefully,  and  to  report  to  the  architect  any  dis- 
crepancies in  figuring,  or  any  apparent  difficulties  of  execution  which 
they  may  discover,  as  well  as  any  points  not  clearly  shown  or  fully 
understood. 

Confidence  in  Decisions.  With  this  feeling  of  co-operation 
thoroughly  established  between  the  owner,  the  architect,  and  the 
builder,  the  architect  will  be  in  a  position  to  decide  any  questions  of 
difference  with  an  assurance  that  his  decisions,  being  fair  and  im- 


13 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


partial,  will  be  respected,  and  being  satisfied  that  his  opinions  are 
correct,  he  should  announce  his  decisions  promptly  and  impartially, 
and  his  answer  being  once  given  he  must  have  the  courage  to  main- 
tain his  position  unless  he  be  proved  to  be  in  the  wrong.  A  lack  of 
confidence  in  his  own  judgment,  or  indecision  may  affect  the  prestige 
of  the  architect,  and  might  be  taken  advantage  of. 

Systematic  Plan  of  Supervision.  In  following  the  construc- 
tion of  a  building  the  superintendent  will  find  it  of  importance  that 
some  systematic  method  shall  be  followed  in  order  to  insure  that 
attention  is  given  to  the  various  details  of  construction  at  the  proper 
time.  If  this  is  not  done  many  defects  of  construction  and  workman- 
ship are  liable  to  be  concealed  or  built  upon  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  remedy  impossible  or  at  the  least  inconvenient.  To  guard  against 
this,  the  superintendent  should  make  a  point  of  going  all  over  the 
building  at  each  visit  and  examining  carefully  any  work  which  has 
been  done  since  his  last  visit.  In  this  way  he  will  not  only  guard 
against  concealed  defects  but  he  will  be  able  to  time  his  next  visit  so 
that  special  operations,  which  he  will  be  able  to  foresee,  will  receive 
his  personal  attention  and  direction  at  the  proper  time. 

Rejection  of  Materials.  One  of  the  most  important  safe- 
guards against  defective  building  is  the  careful  inspection  of  the 
materials  as  they  are  delivered  at  the  building  site,  and  the  prompt 
rejection  of  any  improper  materials  at  that  time.  These  should  be 
marked  plainly,  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  use  them 
in  the  superintendent's  absence  without  the  mark  being  seen.  If 
poor  materials  have  been  brought  into  the  building,  they  should  be 
rejected  at  once,  and  if  possible  removed  from  the  building  site.  If 
the  contractor  finds  at  the  start  that  all  poor  materials  will  be  surely 
rejected,  and  that  all  work  which  is  not  properly  done  must  surely 
be  rebuilt,  he  will  be  careful  that  both  workmanship  and  materials 
are  kept  up  to  the  proper  standard,  and  will  keep  on  the  building  only 
workmen  who  prefer  to  do  a  good  job  rather  than  a  bad  one;  for  his 
own  sake  as  well  as  for  the  good  of  the  building. 

Theory.  These  preliminary  remarks  upon  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  of  the  superintendent,  will  serve  to  bring  before  the 
student  of  Architecture  the  importance  of  a  familiar  knowledge  of 
ordinary  practice.  The  young  architect  or  student  will  rarely  have 
an  opportunity  of  gaining  this  knowledge  by  practical  experience,  and 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  tech- 
nical books  for  the  knowledge  which  he  must  possess.  It  will  be  the 
object  of  this  paper  to  point  out  to  the  student  some  of  the  ordinary 
operations  of  building  construction,  rather  than  the  theoretically 
perfect  methods,  in  a  manner  that  can  be  easily  understood,  and  to 
show  as  well  some  of  the  ways  in  which  defective  work  and  materials 
are  to  be  discovered  and  avoided. 

It  will  be  assumed  that  the  student  has  become  familiar  with  the 
usual  methods  of  drawing  and  construction  from  his  previous  work 
and  that  he  would  be  able,  if  called  upon,  to  superintend  the  construc- 
tion of  the  suburban  house  which  has  been  used  as  a  type.  By  this 
it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  construction  of  a  dwelling  is  the 
easiest  matter,  for  this  is  not  the  case,  but  it  is  chosen  because  there 
is  greater  opportunity  for  the  comparison  of  results  with  practice,  in 
the  buildings  which  we  live  in,  and  it  is  also  this  class  of  building 
which  contains  a  variety  of  structural  problems. 

Selection  of  Site.  First  in  importance  to  the  owner  as  well 
as  to  the  architect  is  the  selection  of  the  spot  where  the  house  is  to 
stand.  To  the  owner  the  main  essential  will  be  the  outlook  and  con- 
venience of  approach,  and  at  the  same  time  the  appearance  which  the 
house  will  present  from  the  various  approaches,  with  the  maximum 
of  the  light  and  warmth  of  sunshine  in  the  principal  rooms,  that  the 
situation  will  allow.  In  almost  all  portions  of  our  country  a  southern 
or  eastern  exposure  is  the  pleasantest,  and  should  be  the  choice  for 
the  principal  rooms  which  will  thus  receive  the  morning  sunshine  and 
warmth  in  winter,  and  will  avoid  the  intense  heat  of  the  afternoon 
sun  in  summer. 

To  the  architect,  less  apparent,  but  no  less  important  considera- 
tions present  themselves  in  the  practical  aspects  of  the  ground.  In 
rocky  or  hilly  country,  besides  the  importance  of  outlook,  is  the  im- 
portance of  placing  the  house  so  that  natural  advantages  of  slope  and 
ledge  may  be  taken  advantage  of  for  driveways  or  yards;  and  in  every 
location  is  the  consideration  of  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Soil.  The  soil  may  be  rocky,  or  clayey,  or  sandy;  it  may  be 
springy  or  well  drained.  The  surest  way  to  find  out  the  actual  con- 
dition, is  by  digging  test  pits  to  the  proposed  depth  of  the  cellar,  but 
in  many  cases  the  appearance  of  the  surface  will  give  sufficient  indi- 
cation of  the  nature  of  the  soil,  while  the  presence  of  ledge  may  be 


15 


8 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


detected  by  driving  a  rod  into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  excavation. 
If  rocky  or  clayey,  we  may  anticipate  trouble  from  water,  which  in 
rock  or  clay  finds  a  way  into  the  excavations  made  (Fig.  l)and,  having 
no  way  of  escape,  gradually  rises  until  the  pressure  is  sufficient  to 
force  a  way  through  the  cellar  wall  or  concrete  in  spite  of  almost  any 
precaution  which  may  be  taken  to  exclude  it.  The  only  remedy  is 
to  give  the  water  an  easier  way  to  escape  than  through  the  wall  or 
cellar  concreting;  and  in  towns  where  there  are  sewers,  this  is  an  easy 
matter,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to  secure  a  good  connection  with  the 
sewer  by  means  of  suitable  pipes,  which  must  be  started  at  a  level 
lower  than  the  cellar  bottom.  (Fig.  2).  This  will  require  that  the 


Fig.  1.    Ground  Water. 


Fig.  2.    Cellar  Drain. 


house  be  set  high  enough  to  bring  the  bottom  of  the  cellar  well  above 
the  top  of  the  sewer.  If  the  house  is  in  a  locality  where  there  is  no 
sewer,  a  similar  result  can  be  obtained  by  laying  drains  running  with  a 
proper  grade  from  the  cellar  of  the  house  to  wherever  an  outlet  can 
be  found  at  a  lower  level.  This  can  usually  be  done  in  a  rolling 
country,  but  a  cellar  in  clay  or  rock  in  a  level  country  is  likely  to  be 
a  continual  source  of  trouble  and  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  Most 
house-lots  in  the  suburban  towns  will  afford  some  choice  in  location, 
so  that  often  serious  trouble  may  be  avoided  by  a  careful  examination 
of  the  soil  and  of  surrounding  conditions.  In  sandy  or  gravelly  soil 


16 


-PLA/i-  OF-  F1BJT  -  FLOOR-- 


Pig.   4. 


Fig.  5. 


12  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

hardly  any  extra  precautions  will  be  needed  as  the  water  is  free  to 
drain  away  through  the  sand  and  will  have  no  tendency  to  run  through 
the  wall  of  the  cellar.  Even  in  sandy  soil,  however,  it  will  be  well  to 
give  the  outside  of  the  wall  a  coating  of  cement  or  asphaltum,  taking 
care  to  see  that  the  whole  surface  is  covered. 

Description  of  House.  The  house  which  we  will  assume  to 
construct  is  already  familiar  to  the  student  in  detail,  and  we  may  sup- 
pose it  to  be  erected  upon  a  suburban  lot  not  wholly  level  but  with 
the  usual  variations  of  ground  and  aspect.  The  house  is  designed 
in  the  Colonial  style  (Fig.  3),  and  comprises  a  large  living-room,  hall, 
parlor,  dining-room,  back-hall,  china  closet,  kitchen,  pantry  and 
entry,  on  the  first  floor  (Fig.  4);  and  five  chambers  and  bath  room 
with  stair  halls  on  the  second  floor  (Fig.  5).  The  attic  is  unfinished, 
and  the  basement  will  contain  a  laundry  with  wash  trays,  a  store 
room  and  servant's  water  closet.  The  living  room  is  finished  in 
quartered  oak,  the  dining-room  in  mahogany,  the  parlor,  hall  and 
sleeping  rooms  in  white  painted  finish.  The  kitchen  and  service 
portions  of  the  house  are  finished  in  North  Carolina  hard  pine. 

The  floors  of  main  house  will  be  of  quartered  oak  in  the  first 
story  and  spruce  in  the  second  story.  The  floors  of  the  service  por- 
tions will  be  of  Georgia  pine.  The  exterior  walls  will  be  clap- 
boarded  and  the  roof  shingled. 

Drawings.  The  drawings  upon  which  the  contracts  are  to  be 
based  will  consist  of  a  plan  of  each  floor,  a  roof  plan  and  elevations  of 
all  four  sides.  Where  the  inside  finish  is  at  all  elaborate,  sectional 
drawings  are  made  in  sufficient  number  to  show  all  of  the  rooms  and 
halls.  These  general  drawings,  supplemented  later  by  framing 
drawings  and  details  and  a  carefully  written  set  of  specifications, 
will  represent  the  labor,  materials,  and  methods  to  be  employed. 
The  necessity  of  a  perfect  familiarity  with  these  drawings  and  speci- 
fications on  the  part  of  the  superintendent,  is  obvious  and  has  been 
already  dwelt  upon  to  some  length,  but  a  few  words  may  well  be  noted 
here  in  regard  to  the  same  precautions  on  the  part  of  the  owner  and 
of  the  contractor. 

The  Interest  of  the  Owner.  It  will  be  to  the  interest  of  the 
owner,  if  he  will  take  the  time  and  trouble,  while  the  drawings  -are 
yet  being  made,  to  consider,  with  the  help  of  the  architect,  the  various 
details  of  construction  and  furnishing,  and  to  become  familiar  with  the 


20 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


drawings,  that  he  may  clearly  understand  just  what  they  are  intended 
to  represent.  By  comparing  sizes  of  rooms,  doors,  stairs  and  other 
fixtures  as  drawn,  with  houses  already  executed,  he  will  be  able  to 
satisfy  himself  that  the  house  when  done  will  be  according  to  his 
wish.  The  specifications  may  to  good  advantage  be  studied  at  home 
where  he  may  receive  suggestions  from  the  various  members  of  his 
family,  and  modifications  can  be  readily  made  to  meet  individual 
preferences  and  tastes.  Careful  study  of  this  kind  will  be  of  great 
value  to  the  owner,  and  will  often  avoid  later  expense  in  altering 
work  which,  in  the  absence  of  particular  instruction,  will  have  been 
carried  out  in  the  usual  way;  and  the  architect  will  find  that  time 
spent  in  helping  the  owner,  and  also  the  contractor,  to  a  thorough 
understanding  of  his  drawings,  will  enable  him  to  carry  out  the  work 
writh  greater  satisfaction  to  himself  and  to  all  concerned.  With  a 
complete  and  accurate  set  of  drawings  and  specifications,  a  fair 
and  equitable  contract,  and  a  thorough  understanding  of  these  instru- 
ments on  the  part  of  all  the  parties  interested,  we  are  well  equipped 
to  begin  operations  at  once. 

Staking  Out.  Upon  the  signing  of  the  contract,  arrangements 
are  usually  made  for  the  architect  and  the  contractor  to  meet  upon 
the  ground,  to  lay  out  the 
building.  In  our  case  the 
contractor  is  required  by  the 
specifications  to  employ  a 
civil  engineer  to  lay  out  the 
work  and  set  the  "batter 
boards".  These  consist  of 
boards  six  or  eight  feet  long 
as  the  case  may  require,  se- 
curely nailed  to  joists  which 
are  firmly  set  in  the  ground 
at  the  corners  of  the  cellar. 
(Fig.  6.)  Two  boards  will 

be  needed  for  each  angle,  and  they  are  set  four  or  five  feet  away  from 
the  line  of  the  wall  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  excavation  or  lay- 
ing of  the  cellar  wall.  Before  proceeding  to  erect  the  batters,  the 
position  of  the  house  has  been  fixed  by  the  engineer,  by  setting  a 
stake  at  each  corner,  into  the  head  of  which  is  driven  a  nail  marking 


Fig. 


Batter  Boards 


21 


14 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


the  exact  corner  as  given  by  the  figured  plans.  This  is  often  omitted 
but  is  advisable  as  it  gives  a  figure  which  will  correspond  to  the  di- 
mensions as  figured  on  the  plans,  and  any  error  can  be  more  easily 
detected  than  when  the  lines  for  the  walls  are  drawn.  As  soon  as 
the  corners  of  the  house  have  been  definitely  located,  the  stakes  for 
the  batter  boards  are  set  and  securely  braced  and  upon  these  stakes 
the  batter  boards  are  nailed  with  the  top  of  the  board  at  some  given 
level,  usually  the  top  of  the  cellar  wall.  Between  these  boards  lines 
are  stretched  coinciding  with  the  lines  of  the  building  as  given  by 
the  small  stakes,  and  when  the  lines  are  accurately  drawn  notches  are 
cut  in  the  top  of  the  board  to  hold  and  mark  the  place  where  the 
string  belongs.  If  the  stakes  first  put  down  were  to  represent  the 

outside  line  of  the  sill,  as 
is  often  the  case,  we  must 
measure  out  and  make  a 
second  set  of  notches  for 
the  underpinning  and 
back  from  this  line  we 
measure  the  thickness  of 
the  wall.  (Fig.  7.)  It  is 
often  the  custom  to  drive 
nails  into  the  top  of  the 
batter  boards,  to  which 
the  lines  are  tied,  but 
this  is  not  a  good  prac- 
tice, as  the  nails  are  likely  to  be  pulled  out  of  the  board  before  the 
walls  are  finished,  and  are  very  likely  to  be  driven  in  again  in  the 
wrong  place.  In  addition  to  setting  the  batter  boards  at  a  given 
level,  it  is  always  well  to  establish  in  some  permanent  place,  as 
upon  the  top  of  a  neighboring  ledge  or  by  a  stake  firmly  set  and 
well  out  of  the  way  of  all  building  operations,  a  datum  level  or 
"bench  mark",  as  it  is  commonly  called,  from  which  at  any  time  the 
levels  of  the  work  may  be  given. 

Space  for  Materials.  Before  leaving  the  grounds  it  will  be  well 
to  instruct  the  builder  where  he  can  best  deposit  the  material  which 
will  come  from  the  excavations;  and  to  place  this  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, it  will  be  necessary  to  determine  in  a  general  way,  the  position 
of  the  driveways  or  paths,  and  also  to  have  a  thought  for  future 


Fig.  7.    Marking  of  Batter  Board. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


16 


improvements  and  for  the  required  drainage  system.  Unless  this 
matter  is  taken  up  at  this  time  it  will  be  very  probable  that  the  earth 
from  the  cellar  will  be  left  so  near  the  excavation  that  it  will  have  to 
be  driven  or  walked  over  during  construction  and  finally  moved  away 
to  its  destined  use,  as  it  should  have  been  at  the  start.  The  gravel 
will  be  needed  for  the  driveways  and  paths  and  space  for  this  should 
be  found  not  far  away  from  the  house;  and  the  loam  will  be  used 
where  it  is  desired  to  have  a  good  growth  of  grass  and  flower  beds, 
so  we  will  have  this  piled  at  the  front  of  the  lot,  taking  care  to  leave 
ample  space  for  the  convenient  handling  of  timber  and  other  materials. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  consult  the  builder  in  regard  to  this,  as  well 
as  in  regard  to  the  depositing  of  earth,  in  order  that  he  may  not  later 
complain  that  he  has  been  hampered  by  lack  of  proper  space  at 
places  convenient  for  the  prosecution  of  his  work. 

CELLAR  WORK   AND    FOUNDATIONS. 

The  next  visit  finds  the  excavation  of  the  cellar  well  under  way. 
The  loam  has  been  removed  from  under  the  house  and  a  space  eight 
feet  wide  around  the  outside  of  the  house,  and  the  cellar  dug  to  the 
bottom  for  a  great  part  of  its  extent.  We  proceed  at  once  to  examine 
the  nature  of  the  soil  and  find  that  while  it  is  in  the  main  a  good 
coarse  gravel,  there  is  evidence 
toward  the  bottom  of  a  clayey 
deposit  which  will  hold  water, 
and  indeed,  in  the  trenches  di- 
rectly under  the  wall,  which  are 
required  to  be  eighteen  inches 
below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar, 
there  is  water  standing  in  sev- 
eral places.  Remembering  that 
the  specifications  have  fore- 
seen that  the  bottom  of  these 
trenches  should  slope  to  the 
corner  of  the  cellar,  we  direct  that  the  slope  shall  be  made  toward  a 
hollow  in  the  lot  and  that  the  trench  shall  be  extended  until  it  meets 
the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  hollow  some  thirty  feet  or  more  from 
the  house.  This  trench,  as  well  as  the  slope  of  the  trench  under  the 
wall,  we  must  make  with  a  very  slight  pitch  lest  the  run  of  the  water 


Fig.  8.    Dry  Wall  in  Trench. 


88 


16 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Jk, 


Fig  9.    Footing  Stone. 


should  wash  away  the  soil  under  the  wall  and  cause  settlements,  and 
for  greater  security  we  must  see  that  the  lower  foot  of  the  wall  which, 
according  to  the  specifications,  is  "  to  be  laid  in  dry  the  trenches", 
is  well  laid  and  not  dumped  or  thrown  in.  (Fig.  8.)  These  stones 
should  be  neither  large  enough  to  choke 
up  and  prevent  the  flow  of  water  through 
the  trench  nor  so  small  as  to  be  crowded 
into  the  ground  by  the  weight  of  the  walls 
over  them,  and  it  will  be  well  in  any  case 
to  anticipate  possible  settlement  by  ram- 
ming the  first  layer  of  stones  well  into 
the  bed  of  the  trench.  In  a  case  where 
the  nature  of  the  soil  seems  to  be  some- 
what soft  or  the  weight  of  the  building 
is  to  be  more  than  usually  heavy,  it  may 
be  desirable  to  start  the  walls  on  broad 
footing  stones  carefully  bedded  upon  the 
bottom.  In  this  case  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  the  drain  entirely  outside  of  the 
wall,  where  it  may  be  made  of  tile  or  stones.  Indeed,  but  for  the 
added  expense  of  excavation  and  the  increased  cost  of  large  footing 
stones,  this  method  would  be  preferable  in  all  cases.  (Fig.  9.) 

If  on  the  completion  of  the  excavating  there  should  be  found  any 
wet  spots  in  the  cellar  bottom,  these  must  be  connected  by  trenches 
filled  with  stone  chips,  with  the  main  drain  under  or  outside  of  the 
wall  and  in  extreme  cases  the  whole  cellar  bottom  under  the  con- 
crete should  be  filled  with  loose  stones  for  about  one  foot  of  depth. 

Cesspool  and  Drains.  In  connection  with  the  excavation  of 
cellar  we  should  take  up  the  matter  of  a  cesspool,  provided  there  is 
no  sewer  connection  available.  Here  we  will  have  a  choice  of  meth- 
ods. In  a  great  many  cases  where  all  danger  of  contamination  of 
wells  is  obviated  by  a  city  or  town  water  service,  the  cheaper  method 
of  a  leaching  cesspool  may  be  adopted. 

Leaching  Cesspool.  This  consists  of  a  circular  excavation  eight 
or  ten  feet  in  diameter  and  deep  enough  to  reach  to  good  leaching  or 
absorbent  earth,  lined  with  a  dry  wall  of  stones  laid  with  open  joints, 
and  arched  over  on  top  with  stone  or  brick  forming  a  dome  made 
water-tight,  in  the  center  of  which  should  be  set  a  stone,  or  an  iron 


24 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


17 


manhole.  (Fig.  10.)  This  may  be  finished  at  the  level  of  the  ground 
or  kept  low  enough  so  that  it  can  be  sodded  over.  In  good  coarse 
sand  or  gravel  a  cesspool  of  this  kind  will  dispose  of  the  sewage 
of  a  house  for  a  great  many  years,  but  eventually  the  pores  of  the 
earth  will  become  filled  with  the  deposits  and  leaching  will  no  longer 
take  place.  An  effective  remedy  in  this  case  may  be  adopted  by 
making  an  outlet  to  which  a  series  of  pipes  laid  with  open  joints  may 
be  connected,  to  distribute  the  waste  throughout  a  system  of  branches 
laid  about  twelve  inches  below  the  surface  where  it  will  be  absorbed 
and  purified  by  the  soil  and  growth. 


Fig.  10.    Leaching  Cesspool. 

Tight  Cesspool.  The  other  form  of  cesspool  is  what  is  known 
as  a  tight  cesspool  and  is  constructed  of  hard  brick  and  usually  made 
about  six  feet  in  diameter  and  six  feet  deep  from  inlet,  with  walls 
and  dome  eight  inches  thick  and  a  four-inch  bottom,  the  whole 
cemented  inside  and  out  and  made  perfectly  tight.  (Fig.  11.)  This 
cesspool  will  retain  the  whole  of  the  deposits  and  must  be  either  fre- 
quently emptied,  or  an  outlet  made  of  open-jointed  pipe  as  described 
in  connection  with  the  leaching  cesspool.  This  outlet  should  be 
below  the  level  of  the  inlet  and  should  have  a  bend  turned  down  below 
the  surface  so  as  to  remain  in  the  clear  water  which  will  be  found 
under  the  scum  which  lies  on  the  surface.  We  find  by  the  specifi Ca- 
tions that  our  architect  has  adopted  a  clever  combination  of  these 
methods  by  building  two  cesspools,  the  first  of  which  is  a  small  tight 


is 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


cesspool  which  will  retain  all  the  solid  and  putrefying  matter,  and  con- 
necting this  by  an  overflow  pipe  with  a  leaching  cesspool  built  as 
described.  The  effect  of  this  is  that  the  tight  cesspool  will  receive 
all  of  the  solid  matter  which  may  be  in  the  sewage,  wrhere  it  can  be 
cleaned  out  at  stated  periods;  and  the  overflow  being  of  a  wholly 
liquid  nature  will  pass  into  the  leaching  cesspool  in  a  comparatively 
clear  state  and  will  be  absorbed  entirely  by  the  surrounding  earth  with 
no  perceptible  contamination. 

In  locating  the  cesspools  we  must  see  that  they  are  placed  low 
enough  to  allow  the  drain  from  house  to  have  a  good  pitch.  This 
drain  will  be  of  vitrified  earthen  pipe  and  should  be  laid  at  least 
three  feet  six  inches  below  the  surface,  with  an  even  pitch  and 


Fig.  11.    Tight  Cesspool. 

with  the  bottom  of  the  trench  hollowed  out  where  the  hubs  of  pipes 
will  come  so  that  the  pipes  will  lie  flat  in  the  trench.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  in  jointing  the  pipes  to  be  sure  that  the  cement  is 
scraped  off  the  inside  of  the  pipes,  where  a  projection  would  catch  a 
portion  of  any  solid  matter  which  might  pass  through  the  pipes  and 
they  would  soon  become  filled. 

Dry  Wells.  As  a  part  of  the  drainage  system  we  must  provide 
for  the  distribution  of  the  rain  water  from  the  roofs.  If  our  house 
were  connected  with  a  sewer  we  would  simply  connect  the  conductors 
properly  with  the  main  drain  pipe  in  the  cellar,  but  as  we  do  not  want 
this  great  amount  of  water  to  run  into  the  cesspool  we  will  lead  it 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE  19 

away  from  the  house  by  means  of  earthen  pipes  running  from  the 
bottom  of  the  conductors  to  "  dry  wells".  These  are  excavations  some 
three  or  four  feet  each  way,  filled  with  loose  stones  which  will  be  piled 
around  the  end  of  the  drain  pipes  and  the  whole  covered  with  the 
grading.  (Fig.  12.)  The  location  of  these  wells  will  be  determined 
by  the  position  of  the  conductors  and  they  must  be  at  least  eight  or 
ten  feet  from  the  cellar  wall,  and  farther  away  if  there  is  any  danger 
of  the  water  finding  its  way  back  to  the  cellar.  The  waste  from  the 
laundry  trays  being  of  a  comparatively  clear  nature  we  will  dispose 
of  in  the  same  manner. 

Cellar  Walls.     While  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  matter  of 
drainage  at  this  time,  the  actual  work  of  building  the  cesspools  and 
laying  the  drain  pipes  is  us- 
ually taken  up  at  a  later  period ,, 

and  the  whole  of  our  energy  at 
this  time  should  be  directed 
toward  the  building  of  the  cel- 
lar walls.  Already  the  timbers 
for  the  frame  are  being  deliv- 
ered and  the  contractor  for  the 
carpenter  work  is  filled  with 
forebodings  lest  he  have  no 
wall  to  put  his  sill  on  when  the 
first  floor  is  framed.  We  di-  Fig.  12. 

rect  the  mason  to  build  the 

cellar  walls  with  all  the  speed  that  he  can,  "consistent  with  good 
workmanship",  and  set  ourselves  the  task  of  following  him  up  sharply 
to  see  that  this  is  done.  The  greater  part  of  the  stone  for  the  cellar 
walls  has  been  carted  onto  the  lot  and  we  shall  do  well  to  look  it  over 
with  the  mason,  pointing  out  to  him  that  many  of  the  boulder  stones 
are  too  round  and  should  be  split  before  being  used,  while  some  of 
the  more  slaty  stones,  which  appear  to  have  been  recently  blasted,  may 
have  cracks  in  them  which  will  allow  the  water  to  soak  in.  This  may 
be  detected  by  striking  the  stones  with  a  hammer  to  judge  of  their 
soundness  by  the  clearness  of  their  ringing.  The  stones,  upon  the 
whole,  are  a  good  looking  lot,  and  it  will  remain  only  to  see  that  the 
walls  are  properly  built. 


27 


20 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


In  the  first  place  the  walls  must  be  built  entirely  free  from  the 
bank  so  that  they  are  self-supporting  (Fig.  13),  besides  giving  an 
opportunity  of  cementing  the  wall  on  the  outside  as  called  for.  This 
is  a  thing  generally  neglected,  and  yet  is  much  more  important  than 
that  the  inside  of  the  wall  should  be  smooth  and  handsome.  The 
ordinary  careless  way  of  building  the  cellar"  wall  of  a  country  house, 
is  to  lay  the  wall  up  to  the  top  of  the  ground  without  mortar,  of  stones 
of  varying  thickness,  brought  to  a  face  on  the  cellar  side,  and  with 
the  "tails"  of  the  stone  in  irregular  projection  on  the  outside,  some 
partly  resting  against  the  bank  and 
others  barely  filling  out  to  the  required 
thickness,  and  the  whole  smoothed 
over  on  the  inside  by  a  thin  smearing 
of  mortar.  (Fig.  14.)  This  is  a  meth- 
od which  should  be  avoided  for  many 
reasons.  In  the  first  place  a  wall  of 
this  kind  is  little  or  no  protection  against 
water,  for  the  uneven  projections  on 
the  external  face  serve  to  catch  the 
water  which  runs  down  on  the  outside 
and  to  lead  it  into  the  inner  face,  where 
the  thin  pointing  of  mortar  is  very  little 
protection.  Then,  too,  any  movement 
as  of  frost  in  the  ground,  tends  to  over- 
throw the  wall  by  reason  of  the  long 
stones  which  tail  into  the  ground,  and 

often  bear  upon  the  soil  in  such  a  way  that  any  settlement  or  heaving 
of  the  soil  will  open  cracks,  and  cause  the  wall  to  bulge  inward  as  is 
often  seen  in  country  cellars.  In  reality  it  is  more  important  that  the 
outside  face  of  the  wall  should  be  smooth  and  impervious  than  the 
inside  face.  Satisfied  that  the  stones  which  are  being  delivered  are 
suitable  for  our  wall  we  shall  need  to  give  our  attention  mainly  to  the 
construction,  to  the  mortar  and  bonding,  to  the  solidity,  and  later  to  the 
pointing.  The  specifications  say  that  the  stones  shall  be  laid  in  "  half 
cement"  mortar.  This  we  interpret  to  mean  equal  parts  of  cement  and 
lime,  and  not  half  as  much  cement  as  lime,  as  some  contractors  have 
been  known  to  claim.  In  slaking  the  lime  for  mortar  it  is  important 
that  the  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  and  one-half  barrels  to  on 


Pig.  13.    Good  Cellar  Wall. 


28 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


21 


barrel  of  lime,  should  be  added  in  as  large  quantities  as  is  practi- 
cable, as  the  putting  on  of  water  by  bucketfuls  with  time  taken  for 
stirring  between,  tends  to  chill  the  lime  which  is  already  beginning  to 
heat.  After  slaking,  the  lime  must  stand  as  long  as  possible  before 
mixing  with  sand,  and  the  cement  should  not  be  added  until  required 
for  use,  as  it  will  set  in  a  few  hours.  This  mortar  is  to  be  mixed  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement  to  one  part  of  lime  and  eight 
parts  of  sand,  and  must  be  thoroughly  mixed,  as  will  be  shown  by 
the  evenness  of  color  and  smoothness.  To  be  of  good  quality,  the 
lime  should  be  free  from  cinders  and  clinkers,  in  hard  lumps  with 
little  dust.  It  should  slake  actively  and 
entirely,  making  a  fine  soft  paste  with 
no  residue  or  "core".  Lime  should 
always  be  slaked  in  a  pen  built  of 
boards  and  never  on  the  ground  or  in 
a  hollow  in  the  sand.  A  pen  about 
four  feet  by  seven,  and  ten  inches  deep 
is  large  enough  to  mix  a  cask  at  a  time. 

Some  kinds  of  lime,  when  slaked, 
leave  a  residue  of  stones  and  gravel 
and  when  this  is  the  case  instead  of 
the  mortar  being  mixed  in  the  same 
box  in  which  the  lime  slaked,  the  mix- 
ture is  thinned  with  water  and  is  run 
through  a  fine  seive  into  another  box  in 
which  the  mortar  is  mixed.  If  Rock- 
land  lime  is  used  as  is  specified  in  our 
case,  this  will  not  be  necessary. 

Sand.  The  sand  used,  should  be  sharp  and  free  from  dirt,  loam 
or  other  impurities.  To  obtain  this,  it  is  generally  necessary  to 
screen  the  sand.  For  our  purpose  a  rather  coarse  sand  will  make 
the  strongest  mortar.  The  sand  must  be  carefully  inspected  and  in 
case  of  any  doubt  should  be  tested  for  purity.  One  test  is  by  putting 
a  handful  into  a  dish  of  water,  when  any  dirt  or  impurities  will  at 
once  rise  to  the  top  as  the  sand  sinks.  Another  test  is  to  squeeze  a 
handful  of  wet  sand,  and,  upon  opening  the  hand,  if  the  sand  retains 
its  shape  and  soils  the  hand,  it  probably  contains  loam  or  clay  and 
should  be  rejected.  If  it  falls  down  loosely  without  staining  it  is 


Fig.  14.    Poor  Cellar  Wall. 


29 


22 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


probably  clean  and  good.  The  presence  of  fine  loam  in  the  sand 
will  make  the  mortar  work  more  easily  and  it  is  sometimes  so  used 
by  unscrupulous  builders. 

Cement.  There  are  many  brands  of  Rosendale  cement,  which 
is  the  kind  called  for,  and  they  are  so  well  known  that  for  ordinary 
purposes  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  that  the  casks  bear  the  name  of 
the  specified  brand,  and  that  the  cement  is  fresh  and  has  not  become 
crusty  from  absorbing  moisture.  The  darker  colors  also  indicate 
the  better  qualities.  In  case  of  any  doubt,  a  simple  test  is  to  make 
two  cakes  of  about  a  handful  each  mixed  with  a  little  water  and  allow 
one  to  set  in  the  air,  while  the  other  is  put  to  set  in  water.  If  the 
cement  dries  in  the  air  with  a  light  color  and  free  from  cracks,  and 

sets  under  water  with  a 
darker  color  and  without 
cracks,  it  is  of  a  good  qual- 
ity; but  if  either  cake  cracks 

j        T or  becomes  twisted  and  bub- 

j[        .      r'  J         VJ^ZL      %  it  shows  a  quality  of 

~"j         ^Y^**v**^*^f^[         cement  which  is  inferior,  and 
.  t        L      JL     ,    J  1        fJi.         should  be  rejected.    Cement 

must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place 
as  a  little  moisture  will  cause 
it  to  set  and  it  will  soon  be- 
come worthless. 

Cellar  Wall.     Upon  our 
next  visit,  we  find  that  the 

trenches  all  around  the  cellar  have  been  filled  and  a  portion  of  wall  laid 
starting  from  the  corner  and  running  some  ten  feet  in  either  direction. 
Our  first  care  is  to  examine  the  lines  by  which  the  work  is  being  laid  up. 
We  note  that  each  line  is  tied  to  its  proper  notch  on  the  batter  boards 
and  that  the  men  are  working  to  plumb  lines  hanging  at  intervals 
from  the  long  lines  (See  Fig.  7),  using  the  stones  about  as  they  come 
to  hand,  the  only  preparation  being  to  square  the  too  irregular  ones, 
to  make  a  face  on  them  by  the  use  of  the  stone  hammer.  We  cau- 
tion the  mason  to  level  off  the  wall  about  every  two  feet  (Fig.  15)  and 
to  keep  the  horizontal  joints  as  near  to  a  level  as  possible.  We  also 
call  his  attention  to  the  clause  in  the  specifications  which  calls  for  a 
bond  stone  in  every  ten  square  feet  of  wall,  and  carefully  examine 


—-»• — 
Fig.  15.    Rubble  Wall  Levelled  Off. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


28 


the  wall  already  built  to  see  if  this  has  been  done.  In  a  wall  such  as 
we  require,  that  is,  with  practically  two  faces,  there  is  often  a  tendency 
to  build  the  two  faces  with  long  narrow  stones  and  fill  in  between 
with  small  stones  which  are  put  in  nearly  dry  with  a  little  mortar  on 
top  to  show  well.  Such  a  wall  has  an  appearance  of  strength  on  the 
faces,  but  under  a  heavy  load  may  fail  from  lacking  of  bonding.  To 
detect  this  defect  in  a  wall  already  built,  and  before  the  mortar  has 
set,  a  very  useful  instrument  is  a  steel  rod  about  ^  -inch  in  diameter 
and  four  feet  long.  This  will  show  at  once,  by  being  thrust  down 
into  the  center  of  the  wall,  whether  the  stones  are  laid  to  overlap 
each  other  or  not,  and  also  if  the  stones  in  the  center  are  well  bedded 
or  not,  as  they  will  rock  and  jar  when  struck  with  the  rod  if  not 


Fig. 


Corner  of  Wall. 


bedded  thoroughly.  No  stone  should  be  set  with  a  depth  from  the 
face  of  less  than  six  inches,  and  all  stones  should  be  laid  so  that  their 
split  surface  is  horizontal  and  breaking  joints  in  the  length  of  the 
wall,  as  well  as  through  and  through,  and  all  angles  should  be  bonded 
alternately,  using  the  largest  stones  for  the  corners.  (Fig.  16.) 

The  corner  which  has  been  built,  we  find  to  be  well  bonded,  as 
the  first  corner  of  any  wall  is  apt  to  be  when  stones  are  plenty  and 
near  at  hand  (it  is  the  last  corner  of  a  cellar  wall  which  will  need  the 
sharpest  watching),  but  about  six  feet  from  the  corner  we  discover  a 
line  of  vertical  joints  which  runs  irregularly  but  continuously,  through 
four  or  five  courses.  (A,  Fig.  17.)  We  call  the  man  who  is  working 
upon  this  part  of  the  wall,  and  point  out  the  defect  to  him  with  in- 


31 


24  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

structions  to  take  down  the  wall  until  he  can  bond  over  the  second 
course,  and  we  caution  the  foreman  to  wajch  sharply  against  this  sort 
of  construction.  Another  bad  practice  which  some  masons  encourage, 
is  that  of  filling  the  spaces  between  the  larger  stones  with  chips  or 
pebbles,  put  in  dry,  and  then  smeared  over  with  mortar  which  is 
more  or  less  carefully  worked  into  the  seams.  This  kind  of  work 
will  be  easily  detected  by  use  of  the  steel  rod,  which  we  can  feel  mov- 
ing the  stones  if  poorly  bedded.  The  right  way  is  to  settle  each  stone, 
no  matter  how  small,  into  a  bed  of  mortar  either  by  rubbing  with  the 
fingers  or  by  tapping  with  the  trowel  or  hammer.  In  heavy  work 
all  large  stones  should  be  set  with  a  derrick,  as  in  rolling  the  stones 
up  to  their  places  on  planks  set  up  against  the  freshly  laid  wall,  there 

A 


Fig.  17.    Straight  Joint  in  Wall. 

is  not  only  danger  of  shoving  the  wall  out  of  plumb,  but  the  bed  of 
chips  and  mortar  which  has  been  prepared  is  sure  to  be  torn  up,  and 
there  is  no  certainty  that  the  stones  are  properly  bedded.  Satisfied 
with  the  work  which  has  been  done  so  far,  we  give  orders  that  the 
filling  in  against  walls  be  done  with  coarse  gravel  or  broken  stone  well 
puddled  with  water  or  settled  by  ramming. 

Underpinning.  The  next  visit  finds  the  cellar  wall  completed 
up  to  grade  and  the  excavation  filled  in  to  the  natural  level  of  the 
ground.  While  we  have  no  reason  to  suspect  that  our  instructions 
have  not  been  followed  in  regard  to  facing  the  wall  on  both  sides, 
we  nevertheless  have  recourse  to  the  steel  rod.  Thrusting  it  down 
alongside  the  wall  at  intervals  we  do  not  find  any  projecting  stones, 


32 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


and  as  the  digging  away  of  the  filling  in  several  places  shows  that  the 
wall  is  properly  cemented  on  the  outside  we  feel  reasonably  sure  that 
the  wall  is  built  according  to  contract,  and  proceed  to  a  consideration 
of  the  underpinning,  the  portion  of  the  cellar  wall  above  ground, 
which  being  visible,  must  be  considered  from  the  point  of  appearance 
as  well  as  strength.  A  variety  of  materials  may  be  used  for  under- 
pinning. Long  pieces  of  granite  or  freestone  in  one  or  more  courses 
are  often  used,  sometimes  an  eight-inch  brick  wall  is  built  upon  the 
stone  of  cellar  and  often  the  cellar  wall  is  continued  up  to  sill  of  the 
same  character  as  below  ground,  except  that  instead  of  being  careful 
to  fill  the  face  joints,  they  are  left  without  mortar  for  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  depth  from  surface,  to  be  filled  later  with 
Portland  cement  mortar,  colored  to  taste,  and  rubbed  with  a  tool 
made  for  the  purpose  to  give  either  concave,  V-shaped,  or  raised  joint. 
It  is  important  to  see  that  the  underpinning  is  carried  up  to  the 
sill  the  full  thickness  of  the  wall,  leaving  out  spaces  for  girders,  with 
the  top  carefully  levelled  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  sill. 

FRAMING. 

While  the  walls  are  being  built  the  carpenters  have  been  at  work 
framing  the  house  and  are  now  ready  to  lay  the  sills  and  put  on  the 
first  floor  beams.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  sill  consists  in  halv- 
ing and  pinning  together  at  the 
corners  (Fig.  18),  mortising  for 
the  door  and  window  studs,  and 
notching  out  for  each  floor  joist 
about  two  inches  down  into  the 
top  of  the  sill.  The  sill  should 
be  well  painted  on  the  under  side 
as  a  protection  against  moisture 

from    the    wall,    but    unpainted  Fig.  is.   comer  of  sin. 

elsewhere     to     allow    of    drying 

out,  and  should  be  set  in  a  thick  bed  of  mortar.  As  our  sill  is  to  set 
back  two  inches  from  the  face  of  the  wall,  we  shall  have  a  chance  to 
point  up  with  mortar  along  the  outside  edge  to  be  sure  that  there  is 
no  chance  for  cold  air  to  get  into  the  floors  at  this  point. 


I 


2(5  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Custom  allows  much  variation  in  the  size  of  the  sill,  six  by  six 
being  the  more  common  size.     Six  by  eight  is  called  for  in  our  case 
and  in  some  cases  the  sill  is  made  six  by  the  depth  of  the  joist.     Where 
large  sizes  of  timber  are  easily  obtainable,  this  method  is  to  be  com- 
mended.    In  the  first  place  the  greater  depth  of  timber  will  span  all 
openings  that  are  likely  to  occur  in  the  cellar  wall,  again,  the  equal 
depth  of  the  <sill  and  joists  leaves  no  space  connecting  the  cellar  with 
the  vertical  wooden  wall  and  prevents  circulation  of  fire  or  vermin 
without  recourse  to  brick  filling,     (Fig.  19.)     The  sill  may  be  bolted 
to  the  wall,  but  this  is  not  usual  except  for  light  framing  in  exposed 
situations.     After  the  sills  are  set,  the 
next  timbers  to  be  put  on  will  be  the 
girders  which  support  the  inner  ends  of 
the  floor  beams.     These  are    usually 
6X10  inches  or  8  X  10  inches  for  the 
floors  of  a  wooden  house;  in  our  case 
8  X  10  inches,  and  they  are  generally 
set  under  the  bearing  partitions  of  the 
house,  and  supported  by  brick  piers 
or  iron  columns  in  the  cellar.     These 
piers  or  columns  are  generally  not  set 
until  after  the  heavy  floor  beams  have 
been  put  on  as  they  would  be  liable  to 
be  knocked  over  in  handling  the  heavy 
timbers,  so  these  timbers  are  usually 
supported  by  shores  until  the  piers  are 
built. 

The  piers  of  the  height  of  an  ordinary  house  cellar  should  be 
12  X  12  inches,  spaced,  according  to  the  size  of  the  girders,  from  seven 
to  nine  feet  apart. 

In  their  vertical  position,  the  girders  may  be  set  flush  with  the 
floor  timbers,  in  which  case  each  joist  is  framed  into  the  girder,  or 
they  may  be  dropped  to  allow  the  joists  to  rest  on  top,  usually  notched 
an  inch  on  to  the  girder.  (Fig.  20.)  The  advantages  of  the  flush 
framing  are  that  the  shrinkage  of  wood  at  each  end  of  the  joists  is 
equalized,  that  circulation  of  fire  by  means  of  the  interior  partitions  is 
prevented,  and  that  the  girder  does  not  take  head  room  out  of  the  eel-  . 
lar.  The  advantages  of  the  dropped  girder  are  that  the  full  strength 


34 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


27 


of  the  girder  is  available  and  that  it  is  possible  to  run  hot  air  and  other 
pipes  up  in  the  partitions  without  cutting  the  girder.  If  flush  girders 
are  used  the  position  of  mortises,  as  well  as  the  position  of  the  mor- 
tises in  the  sill  should  be  examined  by  the  superintendent  to  see  that 


Flush  Girder.        Fig.  20.       Dropped  Girder. 

the  openings  framed  for  chimneys,  stairways,  etc.,  are  correctly  laid 
out  according  to  the  framing  plans.  Obvious  errors  will,  of  course, 
be  easily  detected  but  it  will  save  much  annoyance  later  if  every 
mortise  is  verified  before  the  floor  is  put  on.  When  this  is  done  the 
floor  timbers  may  be  set.  These  are  usually  two  inches  in  breadth 
and  in  our  case  are  ten  inches  deep.  Upon  these  joists  is  invariably 
laid,  in  the  East,  a  rough  floor  of  |-inch  boards  either  of  spruce  or 
hemlock  upon  which  the 
workmen  can  move  to  carry 
out  all  subsequent  opera- 
tions. It  has  been  the  cus- 
tom in  the  West  to  omit 
this  under  floor,  but  the 
saving  is  very  slight  and  the 
benefits  of  the  double  floor 
are  many.  In  the  first  place 
the  under  floor  stiffens  the 
building  perceptibly,  is  of 
great  convenience  to  the 
workmen,  and  allows  the  laying  of  the  upper  floor  to  be  put  off 
until  the  very  last  thing.  This  is  an  important  consideration  in 
these  days  of  bare  floors  and  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  rough 
under  floor  generally.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  this  floor  diagonally 
with  the  joists  as  it  greatly  stiffens  the  building  and  gives  a  more 
even  surface  upon  which  to  lay  the  upper  floor. 


Fig.  21.    Bridging  of  Joists. 


35 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Bridging.  As  soon  as  the  rough  floor  is  laid,  and  before  this, 
if  the  boards  are  to  be  laid  diagonally,  the  floor  beams  must  be 
bridged,  or  trussed,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  This  consists  in  cutting 
in  diagonally  between  the  joists,  strips  of  wood  which  are  nailed 
securely  top  and  bottom  and  cross  each  other  between  each  timber. 
(Fig.  21.)  Some  carpenters  reason  that  a  piece  of  plank  cut  in  ver- 
tically between  the  joists  will  serve  the  same  purpose,  but  this  is  not 
so.  If  the  floor  is  laid  square  across  the  joists,  the  usual  way  is 
to  take  up  a  board  along  where  the  bridging  will  come.  The  super- 

intendent should  look  out  that  the 
bridging  is  well  fitted  and  thor- 
oughly nailed,  and  continuous'  from 
side  to  side. 

Exterior  Framing.  Next  in 
order  will  come  the  raising  of  the 
exterior  vertical  frame,  and  in  this 
relation  we  will  have  had  a  choice 
of  two  principles.  The  first  and 
more  common  method  is  called 
the  "full  frame"  or  "braced 
frame  '  '  and  consists  first,  of  erecting 
at  the  angles  of  the  building,  posts 
4X6  or  4  X  8.  Between  these 
uprights,  at  the  level  of  the  floors, 
are  run  horizontal  "girts"  which 
receive  the  joists  of  the  second  floor 
and  into  which  are  framed  the  door 


>51LL 


Fig. 


and  window  studs,  and  at  the  top  of  the  wall  a  plate  is  set  in  a 
similar  fashion.  The  angles  made  by  these  timbers  with  the  posts, 
are  braced  by  diagonal  pieces  framed  or  spiked  to  the  horizontal 
timber  and  post.  (Fig.  22.) 

In  the  other  method  of  exterior  framing,  called  "balloon  fram- 
ing," the  girts  are  omitted  and  the  studs  run  from  sill  to  plate.  The 
usual  way  of  forming  the  plate  in  this  construction  is  to  spike  on  the 
top  of  the  studs  a  2  X  4-inch  piece,  and  on  top  of  this  another  2  X 
4-inch  piece,  breaking  joints  and  overlapping  at  the  angles. 

Provision  for  supporting  the  intermediate  floors  is  made  by 
spiking  a  board  1X6  inches  into  notches  cut  in  the  inside  of  the  studs 


30 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


29 


<~V/U*/| 


JOI5T 


so  that  the  top  of  the  board  will  be  an  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the 
floor  joists.  (Fig.  23.)  This  board  is  called  a  ledger-board  and  is 
one  of  the  weak  points  of  balloon  framing,  not  in  the  weight  carrying 
sense,  but  in  case  of  fire,  as  it  does  not  prevent  the  spread  of  the  fire 
as  would  a  solid  girt,  being  more  easily  consumed  and  doubtless 
would  let  the  floor  fall.  The  floor  joists  should  be  notched  over 
this  ledger-board,  which  should  be  kept  back  a  little  from  the  inside 
face  of  the  studs  to  allow  space  for  the  mortar  to  clinch.  Another 
weak  point  is  the  omission  of  braces,  which  if  used  can  only  be  short 
ones  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  are  usually  omitted  in  this  kind  of 
frame.  A  substitute  for  braces  sometimes  used,  is  a  stout  strip 
usually  one  inch  by  three  inches  cut  diag- 
onally into  the  outside  of  the  studs  and 
spiked  to  each.  This  makes  a  very  strong 
brace  but  weakens  the  studding.  The  fact 
that  the  studs  of  a  balloon  frame  run  from 
top  to  bottom,  requires  that  the  windows 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  over  each 
other  so  that  one  set  of  window  studs  will 
serve  for  both  upper  and  lower  windows. 
The  erection  of  the  outside  frame  should 
be  carefully  watched  to  see  that  the  door 
and  window  studs,  at  least,  are  tenoned  head 
and  foot,  that  all  the  braces  are  put  in  and 
properly  framed,  and  that  all  the  joints  are 

snug  and  well  pinned,  the  openings  in  the  proper  places,  and  the  fram- 
ing plumb  and  rigid.  Nothing  is  more  annoying  than  to  find,  after  the 
outside  frame  is  all  up,  that  a  window  or  door  has  been  framed  out 
of  place,  and  although  the  builder  may  be  obliged  to  rectify  the  mis- 
take at  his  own  expense,  it  can  only  be  done  by  patching  somewhere 
and  the  owner  is  quite  likely  to  feel  that  the  error  might  have  been 
prevented  by  the  more  careful  oversight  of  the  architect.  As  soon 
as  the  frame  is  set  up,  in  our  case  a  full  frame,  which  can  be  set  up  a 
story  at  a  time  (the  attic  joists  only  being  carried  on  a  ledger),  the 
outside  boarding  is  put  on.  Spruce  or  hemlock  is  used  for  this 
mainly,  but  it  must  be  mill-planed  to  an  even  thickness  so  as  to  give 
a  true  surface  for  the  outside  covering  of  clapboards  or  shingles. 
(We  find  that  the  boarding  is  specified  to  be  matched  and  laid  diago- 


STUD 


Fig.  23.    Ledger  Board. 


37 


30  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

nally  upon  the  walls  and  square-edged  for  the  roof.  The  reason  for 
not  matching  the  roof  being  that  the  cracks  in  the  square-edged 
boarding  will  allow  circulation  of  air  under  roof  shingles  and  preserve 
them  much  longer  than  if  matched  boarding  were  used.) 

When  the  first  story  studding  is  set  and  the  girts  are  on,  the 
inside  bearing  partitions  must  be  set  up  to  give  a  support  for  the 
inner  ends  of  the  second  floor  joists.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
set  up  all  the  studs  of  these  partitions  at  first,  but  the  partition  caps 
should  be  run  and  studs  set  up  at  three  or  four-foot  intervals  and  set 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  proper  places,  to  avoid  doing  the  work 
over  again.  As  soon  as  this  is  done 
the  second  floor  joists  can  be  set  and 
bridged  and,  with  the  outer  walls  car- 

ried  up  to  the  plate  and  another  parti- 

fts^^mNSwSsKws^      ^jon  jn  ^e  secon(i  story  set,  the  attic 
2'xs"  LEDGER..    ^      joists  may  be  put  on  and  the  building 
fi  [}*  ^  ^>     made   ready    for   the    roof.     At    this 

'     *    juncture    we    are  approached  by  the 


foreman  who  holds  in  his  hand  a  smooth 
board  upon  which  he  has  drawn  a 
sketch  of  the  attic  joists  and  ledger- 
board  which  he  submits  for  our  opin- 
ion. We  examine  his  drawings  and 
find  that  he  has  represented  a  ledger- 
Fig.  24.  2"  x  3"  Ledger.  board  2X3  inches  notched  into  the 
studs  one  inch  and  up  into  the  joists  two 

inches,  making  the  bottom  of  this  ledger  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the 
ceiling  furring.     (Fig.  24.) 

This  method  he  puts  forth  as  having  nearly  equal  strength  of  the 
1  X  6-inch  which  is  generally  used,  and  the  merit  of  not  presenting 
so  broad  a  surface  behind  the  lathing  at  the  top  of  the  second  story, 
which  destroys  in  a  measure  the  key  of  the  plaster.  We  consider 
carefully  all  of  the  features  of  this  method  and  admitting  that  it  has 
these  features  to  recommend  it,  we  can  praise  the  ingenuity  of  the 
device.  If  we  were  to  run  heavy  cornices  at  the  top  of  our  second 
story  we  would  be  inclined  to  adopt  the  sketch,  but  as  we  shall  run 
only  a  picture  moulding  in  the  angle  which  will  be  helped  rather  than 
hurt  by  the  presence  of  the  wood  behind  the  lathing  at  that  point, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


81 


we  decide  in  favor  of  the  usual  way  of  putting  in  the  1  X  6-inch 

ledger,  but  tell  the  foreman  to  notch  the  studs  1^  inches  deep  so  that 

there  will  be  a  space  between  the  laths  and  the  ledger  for  a  key  to 

the  plaster.     (See  Fig.  23.) 

An  important  matter  in  carrying 

the  outside  and  inside  supports  from 

bottom  to  top  is  to  see  that  the  amount 

of    shrinkable   timber  is  as  nearly  as 

possible  the  same  in  both  outside  and 

inside  walls.     For  this  reason  the  com- 
mon practice  of  setting  the  partition 

studs  upon  a  horizontal  piece  laid  on 

the  under   floor   should    be   avoided. 

(Fig.  25.)     For  instance,  in  our  case 

the  amount  of  horizontal  wood  in  the 

outer  wall  from  the  rigid  underpinning 

to  the  bottom  of  attic  joists  will  be, — 

the  sill  at  six  inches,   the  girt  at  six 

inches  and  the  upper  part  of  the  ledger  board  above  its  nailings 

at  two  inches, — in  all  fourteen  inches  of  shrinkable  wood.     If  the 

inside  partitions  were  set  on  a  two-inch  sole  resting  on  the  under 

floor  in  each  story,  there  would 
be  in  the  inside  wall,  from  the 
rigid  piers  in  the  cellar  to  the 
under  side  of  the  attic  joists, — 
the  girder  at  ten  inches,  the  two 
tiers  of  floor  beams  with  under 
floors  at  eleven  inches  each,  and 
two  soles  and  two  caps  at  two 
inches  each, — making  in  all  forty 
inches  of  wood,  the  shrinkage  of 
which  would  amount  to  an  inch 
and  a  half  or  more  as  against  a 
probable  half -inch  on  the  outside 


Fig.  25.    Wrong  Way  of  Setting 
Partition. 


Fig.  26.    Right  Way  of  Setting  Partition. 


walls.  The  result,  when  the 
house  has  become  'completely 
dry;  would  be  that  the  inner  end  of  the  floor  beams  would  be  an  inch 
or  more  lower  than  the  outer  end,  enough  to  crack  the  plastering, 


32  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

and  make  doors  bind  in  the  cross-walls  of  the  second  and  third 
stories.  The  remedy  for  this,  is  to  let  the  studs  of  the  first  story 
stand  on  the  girders,  and  the  studs  of  the  second  story  stand  upon  the 
cap  of  the  first  story  partition,  and  so  on,  so  that  the  floor  timbers  do 
not  form  a  part  of  the  vertical  frame.  (Fig.  26.) 

This  will  give  an  amount  of  horizontal  wood  equal  to  the  girders 
at  ten  inches,  and  the  two  caps  at  two  inches  each,  making  fourteen 
inches  in  all,  about  equal  to  the  horizontal  timber  in  the  outside  frame. 
Partitions  running  through  two  or  more  stories  which  do  not  carry 
floor  beams  should  be  built  in  the  same  way.  Partitions  which  have 
no  corresponding  partitions  under  them  will  often  occur  and  will  be 
found  in  two  conditions,  those  running  parallel  with  the  floor  beams 
and  those  running  across  the  floor  beams.  In  the  former  case  it  will 
be  necessary  to  set  two  floor  beams  under  the  partition  spaced  far 
enough  apart  to  give  a  good  nailing  for  the  ends  of  the  upper  floor 
boards.  In  the  latter  case  it  will  be  necessary  only  to  lay  down  upon 
the  under  floor  a  sole  two  inches  thick  by  the  width  of  the  studs. 

An  important  matter  in  relation  to  the  levelling  of  the  floors  is 
to  see  that  all  measurements  for  sizing  down  of  the  timbers  are  made 
from  the  top  of  the  timber,  so  that  the  floor  will  be  level  on  the  top 
and  any  inequalities  in  the  depth  of  the  joists  can  be  taken  up  in  the 
furring.  A  half-inch  will  usually  be  enough  to  overcome  the  differ- 
ences in  the  depth  of  the  joists  so  that  a  series  of  ten-inch  joists  should 
be  set  with  their  tops  nine-and-one-half  inches  above  the  girder  or 
partition  cap  upon  which  they  rest. 

Roofs.  As  soon  as  the  attic  floor  is  on,  the  roofs  wrill  be  raised. 
In  ordinary  country  houses  the  roof  should  be  supported  where  pos- 
sible by  the  interior  partitions  where  they  extend  down  to  first  floor 
girders  over  basement  piers,  in  which  case  no  complicated  framing 
or  truss  work  will  be  required.  The  ordinary  form  of  roof  consists 
of  a  series  of  rafters  supported  at  the  bottom  by  the  plate  of  the  house 
and  at  the  top  by  the  ridge  pole.  Intersecting  roofs  are  supported 
by  larger  timbers  called  valley  rafters  and  these  should  always  con- 
tinue up  to  the  ridge.  If  the  rafters  are  over  eighteen  feet  long  it 
will  be  necessary  to  support  them  near  their  center,  this  is  done  by 
partitions  or  by  collar  beams  spiked  across  from  rafter  to  rafter. 
(Fig.  27.)  In  large  buildings  they  are  supported  by  purlins  resting 
on  trusses  or  on  posts.  The  spacing  of  the  rafters  varies  from  sixteen 


40 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


PUR.LIH 


inches  to   two  or  three  feet,  twenty  inches  being  the  most  usual. 

For  any  roof  of  less  than  30-foot  span  with  the  plate  securely 
tied,  no  interior  supports  will  be  needed,  and  above  this  span,  purlins 
should  be  used.  The  size  of  rafters  not  over  12  feet  long  should  be 
2X6  inches,  from  12  feet  to  18  feet  2X7  inches  and  2  X  8  inches, 
and  over  that  length  2X10  inches.  On  the  whole  it  will  be  cheaper 
to  reduce  the  length  to  10  or  12  feet  by  means  of  purlins.  An  exam- 
ination of  the  framing  plans  shows  that  our  rafters  are  about  fifteen 
feet  long  and  two  by  seven  inches  in  size,  set  twenty  inches  on  centers. 
The  roof  is  a  hip  roof,  that  is,  a  roof  which  draws  in  from  all  sides, 
which  is  the  strongest 
kind  of  roof,  so  that  we 
shall  not  have  to  pro- 
vide any  special  sup- 
ports, and  shall  only 
have  to  see  that  the 
proper  pitch  is  given 
according  to  plans, 
that  the  valleys  are 
properly  put  in  and  are 
extended  to  the  ridge  or 
to  the  hips,  and  that  the 
openings  are  of  the 
right  size  and  in  the 
right  positions.  All 
portions  of  the  roof  must  be  well  spiked  together,  the  ridges  per- 
fectly straight  and  level  and  in  the  center,  and  the  rafters  all  set 
exactly  to  a  line 

Partitions.  With  the  covering  in  of  the  building  we  may  turn 
to  the  completion  of  the  inside  partitions,  and  these  must  be  carefully 
followed  to  see  that  the  studs  are  straight  and  plumb.  Crooked 
studding  may  be  straightened  by  cutting  with  a  saw  on  the  concave 
side  and  then  wedging  the  cut  apart.  All  studs  which  bear  an  extra 
weight,  as  at  the  sides  of  large  openings,  should  be  examined  to  see 
that  they  have  a  sufficient  support  on  the  partition  under  and  do 
not  come  between  the  studs,  in  which  case  a  block  should  be  cut  in 
under  the  partition  cap,  and  the  same  should  be  done  where  heavy 
timbers  bear  between  studs.  All  corners  must  be  examined  to  see 


C01_LA.E. 


Fig.  27.    Collar  Beam  and  Purlins. 


41 


34:  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


that  they  are  made  solid  for  lathing  (Fig.  28),  and  that  provision 
is  made  for  running  pipes,  etc.  If  any  of  the  unsupported  partitions 
running  parallel  with  the  joists  are  found  to  have  a  considerable 
span,  so  that  there  is  danger  of  too  much  sagging,  the  difficulty  may 
be  overcome  by  trussing  the  partition  at  a  small  cost  and  if  by  any 
means  such  a  partition  is  used  to  support  floors  or  other  partitions 
over,  this  should  be  done  in  any  case.  The  studs  at  the  sides  of  all 
openings  are  to  be  doubled,  and  all  openings  of  more  than  three  feet 
are  to  be  trussed.  The  head  of  all  openings  should  be  double,  with 
the  lower  piece  an  inch  from  the  upper  so  that  if  there  is  any  sagging 
of  the  upper  or  weight-bearing  piece  it  wTill  not  affect  the  lower  one 
to  which  the  finish  is  nailed.  All  the  partitions  should  be  bridged, 
and  all  sliding  door  pockets  sheathed  with  end  joints  secured,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  possibility  of  a  board  starting  off.  The  lining  of 


x 


c 
4! 


Fig.  28.    Corners. 

sliding  door  pockets  should  be  set  upon  heavy  sheathing  paper  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prevent  air  drafts  from  the  cellar  which  are  a  source 
of  great  annoyance. 

MASON   WORK. 

Chimneys.  While  these  matters  are  being  followed  out  by  the 
carpenter,  the  mason  will  have  started  the  chimneys,  as  the  roof  can- 
not be  finished  until  the  chimneys  are  topped  out.  The  bricks  which 
are  furnished  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  any  that  are  soft,  or 
easily  broken  by  striking  together,  should  be  ordered  off  the  grounds 
at  once.  The  specifications  call  for  good  hard  bricks.  If  the  con- 
tractor is  honest  he  will  have  ordered  suitable  bricks,  and  if  they  are 
rejected  the  loss  will  be  the  dealer's  and  not  his.  Next  in  importance 
to  the  quality  of  the  brick  is  the  smoothness  of  the  inside  of  the 
flues,  this  is  best  obtained  in  unlined  flues  by  cleaning  off,  with  the 
trowel,  the  mortar  which  squeezes  out  of  each  joint  as  the  bricks  are 
laid.  In  some  localities  it  is  customary  to  plaster  the  inside  of  the 


BUILDING   SUPEKINTENDENCE 


flues  with  mortar,  but  there  is  always  danger  after  awhile  that  this 
plastering  may  become  loose  and  block  the  flues.  Chimney  bricks 
should  be  laid  solid  in  mortar,  so  that  no  cracks  are  left  for  the  pas- 
sage of  sparks.  The  best  plan,  and  what  is  specified  in  this  case, 
is  to  use  flue  linings  of  vitrified  clay.  These  not  only  give  a  smooth 
flue,  but  add  strength  to  the  chimney  and  permit  the  use  of  four-inch 
walls  everywhere.  All  ash  doors,  clean-outs  and  thimbles  should  be 
of  ample  size,  and  set  as  the  work  goes  up,  and  the  withes  bonded 
into  the  outer  walls  every  six  or  eight  courses.  (Fig.  29.)  This  will 
not  be  done  unless  close  watch  is  kept. 

The  rough  fireplaces  must  be  formed,  with  wrought  iron  bars 
over  each  opening,  and  the  outside  of  the  chimney  must  be  thoroughly 
plastered  from  cellar  to  roof.  The 
topping  out  of  the  chimney  is  to 
be  done  with  the  hardest  of  the 
bricks  laid  in  Portland  cement 
mortar,  and  if  any  enlargement 
of  the  chimney  is  contemplated, 
where  it  shows  above  the  roof, 
this  must  be  done  below  the  roof 
boards  so  that  there  may  be  no 
overhanging  projection  of  the 


i      n      n      n      n 

s 

1 

•=  . 

^ 

- 

= 

v  • 

I 

1 

•;  ••••••••n  •••*••  ii:-    ii     n 

5TUDD1NG. 


Fig.  29.    Chimney  Construction. 


bricks  just  above  the  roof,  as  may 
often  be  found  in  old  chimneys, 
for  any  settlement  of  the  chim- 

.        .      .  . 

ney,  which  is  liable  to  occur,  will 
leave  the  top  supported  by  the  overhang  upon  the  roof  and  open  a 
dangerous  seam  at  this  point.  The  settlement  of  chimneys  is  a 
matter  which  it  is  necessary  to  consider  at  all  times,  as  it  is  almost 
certain  that  there  will  be  an  unequal  movement  between  the  chim- 
ney and  the  house.  If  the  chimney  stands  upon  a  ledge  or  other 
immovable  foundation,  the  roof  will  invariably  settle  a  little  by  reason 
of  the  natural  shrinkage  of  the  wood  construction,  but  more  often 
the  chimney,  by  reason  of  its  isolated  foundation  and  the  general 
shrinkage  of  the  mortar  joints,  will  be  found  to  have  settled  more  than 
the  roof. 

This,  as  well  as  the  danger  from  fire,  precludes  the  direct  attach- 
ment of  any  portion  of  the  wooden  construction,  and  so  the  chimneys 


43 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


are  generally  built  entirely  free  and  are  secured  to  the  frame  by  strap- 
iron  ties,  which  will  bend  enough  to  adjust  themselves  to  any  settle- 
ment, either  of  the  chimney  or  the  frame.  In  the  case  of  outside 
chimneys  where  protection  from  the  weather  becomes  necessary,  this 
natural  movement  between  the  chimney  and  the  house  must  be 
recognized,  and  the  chimney  should  be  constructed  with  a  projec- 
tion of  brick  in  line  with  the  frame  so  that  the  boarding  may  run  over 
and  break  the  joint.  (A,  Fig.  29.)  Where  the  top  of  a  small  chim- 
ney stands  clear  above  the  house  for  more  than  ten  or  twelve  feet,  it 
should  be  stayed  to  the  roof  with  iron  rods.  Two  rods  should  be  used, 
spread  as  far  apart  as  possible  at  the  point  of  junction  with  the  roof, 
to  give  a  measure  of  lateral  support  to  the  chimney.  Lead  foi  counter 
flashing  is  to  be  furnished  by  the  carpenter,  for  the  mason  to  build 
into  the  joints  of  the  chimney  above  the  roof  boarding,  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  pieces  are  of  good  size  and  are  carefully 
cemented  into  the  brickwork  at  least  six  inches  above  the  roof,  and 
ready  to  be  turned  down  over  the  flashings  which  the  carpenter  will 
build  in  with  the  shingles.  Behind  the  chimney,  the  flashings  must 
be  built  in  to  a  height  that  will  allow  proper  room  for  building  a 
cricket,  to  turn  the  water  to  either  side.  The  stone  caps  for  the  tops 
of  the  chimneys  will  have  arrived,  and  these  should  be  carefully 
measured  on  the  ground,  to  be  sure  that  they  are  of  the  right  size  and 
that  the  holes  for  the  flues  are  large  enough,  and  of  the  right  shape 
and  in  the  proper  position.  For  large  chimneys  with  thick  walls,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  make  the  stone  cap  in  pieces  and  when  this  is 
done,  the  stones  must  be  carefully  tied  together  with  galvanized  iron 
or  composition  clamps.  The  excessive  projection  of  bricks  to  form 
the  chimney  top  is  a  thing  to  be  avoided,  one-half  to-  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  to  each  course  being  all  that  should  ever  be  allowed.  In 
determining  the  projection  of  the  top,  it  must  always  be  remembered 
that  the  projection  at  the  corners  will  appear  greater  than  the  natural 
projection  of  the  courses,  and  there  will  be  more  danger  of  finding  the 
completed  top  too  large  than  too  small.  Projections  from  the  shaft 
of  the  chimney  must  be  projected  on  top  by  a  weathering  of  Portland 
cement,  and  where  an  outside  chimney  is  reduced  in  size  the  weather- 
ings should  be  of  stone. 

Back  Plaster.     With  the    topping   out  of    the   chimneys   the 
mason,  who  in  suburban  work  is  quite  likely  to  be  the  plasterer  as 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


,-57 


well,  should  turn  his  attention  to  the  back  plastering  if  there  is  to  be 
any.  This  is  done  in  several  ways,  a  common  method  being  to  nail 
strips  to  the  sides  of  the  studs  and  to  lath  upon  these,  plastering  the 
whole  surface  between  the  studs  with  a  rough  coat  of  plaster. 
(Fig.  30  a.) 

Care  must  be  taken  to  bring  the  mortar  well  out  on  the  studs 
and  even  then,  when  the  studs  shrink,  there  may  be  a  continuous 


^£*5J?irL^3 


&oAepin& 


.   £FiniSHED  PIASTER 


Fig.  30a. 


Back  Plastering 


Fig.  305. 

crack  along  the  side  of  the  stud  from  top  to  bottom.  This,  if  it  occurs, 
will  defeat  the  whole  purpose  of  the  back-plastering  and  is  so  likely 
to  occur  that  other  means  are  often  taken  to  obtain  a  better  result. 
One  of  the  best  methods  is  to  lath  the  house  on  the  studding  and  plas- 
ter a  rough  coat  and  then  fur  off  with  f-inch  strips  and  lath  and 
plaster  again  for  the  finished  work.  (Fig.  30  6.) 

Fire  Stops.     In  connection  with  the  back  plastering,  may  be 


SILL 


Fig.  31.    Brick  Filling. 


done  the  fire-stopping  of  plaster  or  bricks,  the  principal  points  being 
to  build  up  on  the  underpinning  behind  the  sill  to  the  underside  of 


45 


88 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Horizontal  Bridging  of 
Partition. 


floor  with  brick,  not  only  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fire,  but  to  prevent 
rats  from  going  from  the  cellar  up  into  the  walls  and  so  all  over  the 
house.  On  the  top  of  girders  the  same  thing  should  be  done,  and  if 

they  support  partitions,  the  brick 
work  should  be  carried  up  between 
the  studs  for  a  distance  of  three 
courses  or  more  above  the  floor. 
(Fig.  31.)  By  repeating  this  upon 
each  partition  cap  and  upon  the 
girts  of  the  outside  frame,  the  whole 
house  will  be  cut  up  into  compart- 
ments and  the  circulation  of  fire  and 
vermin  materially  checked.  In  the 
case  of  a  balloon  frame  where  no 
girt  occurs,  it  is  customary  to  run  the 
floor  boards  out  between  the  studs 
and  to  build  up  on  these  with  the 
bricks.  A  further  precaution  and  a 
valuable  one  is  to  lay  a  few  courses 

of  bricks  upon  the  bridging  of  partitions;  this  will  cause  any  fire 
which  may  be  started  below,  to  break  out  into  the  room,  where  it 
will  be  discovered  before  it  is  likely  to  reach  the  story  above.  The 
spaces  between  stair  stringers  and 
around  chimneys  should  also  be  pro- 
tected by  fire  stops  of  brick  or  plaster. 
Furring  and  Finish.  As  soon  as 
the  roof  is  on  and  boarded,  the  gutters 
will  be  put  on  and  the  roof  shingling 
begun.  The  position  of  the  gutters 
must  be  carefully  noted  to  be  sure  that 
the  edge  is  on  a  line  with  the  roof 
boarding,  otherwise  the  gable  finish 
will  not  work  out  right.  The  position 
of  the  conductors  should  be  deter- 
mined, and  the  gutters  set  with  a 
slight  fall  toward  them,  and  holes  for 
the  lead  goose-necks  should  be  bored,  in  order  that  no  water  shall 
stand  in  the  gutters.  With  the  completion  of  the  gutters  the  shin- 


Diagonal  Bridging  of 
Partition. 


46 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


gling  or  slating  of  the  roof  can  be  commenced,  and  before  the  roof 
is  completed  the  furring  of  the  inside  will  be  taken  up. 

Furring.  Beyond  the  setting  of  minor  partitions  which  were 
not  needed  for  the  support  of  floor  beams,  the  principal  work  of 
interior  framing  will  be  the  furring  of  chimney  breasts,  and  the  form- 
ing of  beams  and  arches.  The  position  and  size  of  all  doors  must 
be  carefully  verified,  especial  care  being  taken  to  allow  the  proper 
width  for  door  casings  where  doors  come  close  to  the  corner  of  any 
room.  When  the  studs  of  all  interior  partitions  are  set  up  they  must 
be  bridged.  This  is  often  done  by  cutting  in  horizontal  pieces  be- 
tween the  studs  (Fig.  32);  but  a  better  way  is  to  cut  in  the  pieces 
diagonally  (Fig.  33).  The  chimneys  must  be  enclosed  by  vertical 
studs,  usually  2  X  3-inch  or  2  X  4-inch,  set  flatwise  and  at  least  an 


Fig.  34.    Chimney  Furring. 

inch  away  from  the  brick  (Fig.  34),  with  an  ample  opening  left  for 
fireplaces,  well  trussed.  All  door  openings  must  also  have  a  truss 
over  them,  and  any  partitions  which  have  no  adequate  support  beneath 
them  should  be  trussed  if  the  arrangement  of  doors  will  by  any  means 
allow  it. 

The  ceilings  will  be  cross-furred  with  f  X  3-inch  strips,  commonly 
called  "strapping".  These  strips  should  be  carefully  levelled  and 
straightened,  as  upon  their  evenness  depends  the  smoothness  of  the 
ceiling,  and  above  all  it  is  necessary  that  the  strips  are  well  nailed  to 
every  joist.  Grounds  are  next  set  and  angle  beads  for  lathing,  but 
before  any  laths  can  be  laid  there  are  a  number  of  things  to  be  con- 
sidered. 

Furnace  Pipes.  In  the  first  place,  all  hot  air  pipes  which  are 
not  intended  to  be  exposed  must  be  put  in  position.  If  a  hot  air 
system  has  been  selected  the  position  of  the  pipes  and  registers  will 
have  been  marked  on  the  plans,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  in 


47 


40  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  execution,  changes  will  suggest  themselves  or  will  be  required 
by  unforeseen  circumstances,  so  that  the  superintendent  should  make 
a  personal  study  of  the  piping  at  the  building.  Where  it  is  possible 
to  arrange  it,  the  pipes  should  be  run  through  closets,  exposed  to 
view,  but  this  cannot  always  be  done,  and  it  often  happens  that  the 
chimney  breasts  and  sometimes  the  partitions  must  contain  hot  air 
pipes.  The  best  and  safest  way  to  do  this  is  to  make  the  pipes  double 
with  at  least  a  half-inch  air  space  between  the  outer  and  inner  pipes. 
This  is  expensive  and  is  not  generally  done,  but  instead  the  woodwork 
which  comes  close  to  the  pipe  is  lined  with  bright  tin,  and  heavy  wire 
lathing  is  used  in  front  of  the  pipes  instead  of  wood  laths.  Where 
the  pipes  are  carried  through  the  partition  or  woodwork  a  sleeve  of 
bright  tin  half  an  inch  larger  than  the  pipes  all  around  should  be 
provided  as  a  safeguard  against  over-heating  of  the  pipes. 

Plumbing  and  Gas  Pipes.  Although  it  is  customary  now  to 
run  the  plumbing  pipes  outside  of  the  plaster,  there  will  be  some 
ventilation  pipes  that  will  need  to  be  provided  for  at  this  time.  All 
of  the  enclosed  gas  piping  must  be  done  before  lathing.  From  the 
fact  that  the  gas  piping  must  be  carried  in  almost  every  case  to  the 
center  of  the  ceilings,  there  is  need  of  careful  watching  lest  the  cutting 
by  careless  workmen  shall  weaken  the  joists.  The  specifications 
distinctly  state  that  no  floor  beams  shall  be  cut  into,  more  than  two 
feet  away  from  their  bearing,  but  as  this  means  that  all  outlets  in  the 
center  of  ceilings  must  be  reached  by  branch  pipes  between  the  joists, 
entailing  more  piping  and  labor  for  the  gas  fitter,  there  is  a  great 
temptation  to  disregard  instructions,  and  to  cut  the  joists  for  a  straight 
run  from  center  to  center  of  rooms.  Only  constant  watching  will 
prevent  this  being  done.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  pipes  are  run 
with  a  continuous  drop  toward  the  meter,  to  allow  the  liquid,  which 
will  always  be  condensed  from  the  gas,  to  run  off;  and  for  the  same 
reason,  wall  outlets  must  be  piped  up  from  below  and  ceiling  drops 
should  be  taken  out  of  the  side  or  top  of  the  pipes.  The  position  of 
all  outlets  must  be  verified,  especially  those  which  are  centered  in  the 
rooms,  and  they  must  be  set  at  right  angles  to  walls  and  ceilings. 
This  can  be  verified  by  screwing  on  to  each  outlet,  as  soon  as  set,  a 
piece  of  pipe  a  foot  or  more  in  length  and  testing  with  a  steel  square. 
No  "gas  fitters"  or  other  cement  should  be  allowed,  but  all  pipes 
should  be  put  together  with  red  lead.  The  outlets  to  receive  fixtures 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


41 


should  be  strongly  secured  to  prevent  springing  or  movement  in  the 
plastered  work. 

Testing.  When  the  piping  is  all  in  place  the  outlets  are  to  be 
capped  and  the  whole  system  tested  for  leaks,  and  accepted  by  the 
local  gas  company.  This  test  consists,  briefly,  in  attaching  to  one 
of  the  outlets  a  mercury  gauge,  and  then  filling  the  pipes  with  air 
under  pressure  till  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  stands  to  the  required 
height  to  insure  tightness,  which  is  usually  six  to  twelve  inches.  The 
apparatus  is  then  left  to  stand  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  if  the 
mercury  still  holds  the  same  level  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  pipes  are 
tight.  Leaks  may  usually  be  detected  by  the  sound  of  the  escaping 
air,  but  often  ether  is  put  into  a  cup  attached  to  the  pump  and  forced 
in  with  the  air,  so  that  leaks,  especially  in  concealed  parts  of  the  pip- 
ing, may  be  detected  by  the  odor 
of  the  ether.  Suspicion  of  a  leak 
in  pipe  or  fittings  may  be  verified 
by  brushing  strong  soap-water 
over  the  place,  when  a  bubble 
will  be  blown  by  the  escaping 
air.  Small  pin  holes  in  the  pipe 
or  couplings  may  be  tamped,  and 
if  thus  rendered  tight  will  remain 
so,  but  pipes  showing  a  split  or 
large  hole  must  be  replaced. 

Electric  Wiring.  All  coun- 
try houses,  unless  in  very  re- 
mote situations  where  there  are 
no  chances  of  an  electric  current 
ever  being  obtained,  should  be 
wired  for  electric  lights.  The 
usual  method  is  the  knob  and 

tube  system,  where  the  wires,  of  copper  heavily  insulated,  are  run 
between  beams  and  studs  on  porcelain  knobs,  and  in  short  porce- 
lain tubes  where  passing  through  timbers.  (Fig.  35.)  Although  the 
insurance  exchanges,  employ  inspectors  and  require  that  every  job 
of  wiring  shall  be  reported  to  them  and  inspected  by  their  men,  it 
will  be  well  for  the  superintendent  to  carefully  watch  this  construc- 
tion to  see  that  all  wires  are  thoroughly  insulated  and  at  least  3  inches 


Fig.  35.    Electric  Wiring. 


49 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


apart  to  avoid  any  chance  of  contact,  that  they  are  not  allowed  to 
sag,  and  that  the  joints  are  properly  protected  by  a  free  use  of  insu- 
lating tape.  Upon  brick  or  stone  walls,  and  in  all  places  where 
there  is  danger  of  injury,  wires  should  be  run  in  conduits  or  pipes. 
In  this  case  the  angles  and  bends  of  the  conduits  must  be  made  in 
easy  curves  so  that  the  wires  may  be  easily  "drawn  in".  All  wiring 
should  be  tested  when  installed  and  again  at  completion  of  the  build- 
ing, to  insure  against  any  mechanical  injury.  For  electric  bells,  it 
is  usual  to  run  an  insulated  wire  secured  to  the  studs  by  staples,  and 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  bells  as  well  as  light  outlets  are  placed 
in  convenient  places.  If  the  bells  are  to  be  operated  mechanically 
the  wires  should  be  run  in  zinc  tubes,  but  as  such  wires  stretch  and 
break  in  time,  the  electric  wires  are  generally  preferred. 

OUTSIDE    FINISH. 

Before  the  building  is  ready  for  the  plasterer,  the  outside  and  the 
roof  must  be  made  tight.     We  have  seen  that  the  gutters  are  set  and 
primed  or  oiled  to  protect  them  against  water;  and  above  the  gutter, 
and  rebated  or  tongued  into  the  back,  is  set  the  "shingle  facia",  a 
vertical  board  varying  in  width  accord- 
ing to  size  of  gutter  and  pitch  of  roof. 
This  facia  is  usually  bevelled  off  on  top 
to  receive  the  butts  of  the  first  course 
of  shingles.     (Fig.  36.) 

Shingles.  The  shingling  of  the 
roof  begins  upon  the  facia  with  a 
double  course  projecting  a  little,  and 
from  the  butts  of  these  shingles  are 
measured  off  the  courses  of  the  roof. 
Unless  the  roof  is  very  steep  the  courses 
should  not  exceed  four-and-a-half 
inches  for  the  ordinary  length  of  16 

inches,  as  cedar  and  redwood  shingles  are  usually  sawn.  Cypress 
shingles  are  found  18  or  20  inches  long  and  are  the  most  durable  of 
all  shingles,  but  redwood  and  cedar,  especially  cedar,  are  more  com- 
monly used.  Regarding  durability,  cypress  shingles  have  been  known 
to  have  lasted  more  than  a  hundred  years,  redwood  shingles  from  25 
to  50  years,  and  cedar  shingles  from  12  to  20  years. 


Fig.  36.    Gutter. 


50 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  43 


Paper.  The  question  as  to  whether  paper  shall  be  put  under 
shingles  or  not,  is  open  to  argument.  If  the  shingles  are  laid  without 
being  dipped  in  paint  or  with  the  butts  dipped  only,  the  presence  of 
paper  will  cause  sweating,  and,  preventing  any  circulation  of  air  under 
the  shingles,  will  cause  them  to  decay  much  sooner  than  if  no  paper 
is  used;  but  on  the  other  hand  if  the  attic  is  plastered  there  is  danger 
of  damage  from  leaks  and  from  fine  snow  sifting  under  the  shingles. 
In  the  present  case  the  attic  is  to  be  unfinished  and  we  will  use  no 
paper  on  the  roofs.  The  ridge  of  a  shingled  roof  is  usually  finished 
by  means  of  saddle  boards  nailed  over  the  tops  (Fig.  37),  but  some- 
times an  ornamental  cresting  is  used.  Hips  are  best  finished  by  what 
is  called  "saddle  board"  shingling,  in  which  a  course  of  shingles  is 
put  over  the  roof  shingles  laid  at  right  angles  with  the  hip.  There 
is  little  danger  of  roofs  leaking  at  the  ridges  and  hips,  but  the  hip 
shingles  unless  well  nailed  are  liable 
to  be  blown  off.  The  plane  surface 
of  the  roof,  if  reasonable  care  is  taken, 
should  afford  no  liability  of  leaking,  but 
dormers,  chimneys  and  valleys  are 
sources  of  great  danger.  The  flashing 
against  chimneys  and  the  vertical  sides 
of  dormers  is  done  by  means  of  pieces 
of  tin  or  zinc  about  7  inches  square 
bent  in  the  middle,  so  that  one  half  Fie-  ™-  Kidge  Finish, 

will  lay  in  the  course  of  shingles  and 

one  half  turn  up  against  the  vertical  wall,  to  be  covered  by  the 
shingles  of  the  wall  or  by  the  counter-flashing  of  the  chimney.  In 
the  Eastern  States  zinc  is  generally  used  for  flashings,  but  in  the 
West  tin  is  the  common  material.  In  the  forming  of  valleys,  two 
methods  are  followed,  that  of  an  "open"  or  a  "close"  valley.  In 
the  former  case  the  shingles  are  kept  apart  six  or  eight  inches  and  the 
valley  is  made  of  zinc  or  tin,  of  ten  in  long  strips  locked  and  soldered 
at  the  joints  and  running  under  the  shingles  from  four  to  six  inches. 
The  defect  in  this  method  of  a  continuous  piece  of  metal  is  that  there 
is  no  chance  for  the  metal  to  expand  and  contract  in  its  length,  with- 
out danger  of  straining  the  joints  and  even  of  starting  the  shingles 
or  slates  which  are  laid  over  it.  For  this  reason  the  use  of  separate 
pieces,  the  length  of  the  shingles  or  slates  and  shingled  in  with  each 


51 


44  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

course,  is  to  be  preferred.  These  are  bent,  and  lapped  in  the  same 
way  as  the  shingles  without  soldering  and  are  free  to  expand  and 
contract  without  damage. 

In  the  case  of  the  "close"  valley  the  shingles  are  laid  close  to- 
gether at  the  angle  and  narrower  pieces  of  zinc  or  tin  are  shingled 
into  each  course.  The  flashing  of  roofs  is  a  matter  which  needs  a 
great  deal  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent,  especially 
to  see  that  wide  enough  metal  is  used.  Counter-flashings  are  often 
omitted  unless  specially  mentioned  and  should  always  be  built  into 
brickwork  if  possible.  If  not  built  in,  it  must  be  carefully  wedged 
into  joints  which  have  been  raked  out,  and  pointed  with  cement. 
Every  part  of  the  flashing  of  a  roof  should  be  examined  by  the  super- 
intendent and  it  must  never  be  left  to  the  care  of  the  builder  or  the 
workmen. 

Slating.  With  slating  or  tiling  greater  care  is  necessary  than 
with  shingles.  Neither  slates  nor  tiles  will  lay  as  closely  to  the  roof, 
or  to  each  other,  as  shingles,  and  for  this  reason,  the  boarding  should 
always  be  matched,  and  tarred  paper  always  used,  as  circulation  of 
air  is  no  object  with  slates.  The  lap  of  slates  should  vary  with  their 
length,  always  allowing  at  least  three  inches  head-cover,  that  is,  each 
slate  must  lap  three  inches  below  the  head  of  the  second  slate  below 
it.  Tiles  are  constructed  with  a  variety  of  joints  and  laps,  each 
designed  for  the  needs  of  the  different  forms  of  the  tiles.  Both  slates 
and  tiles  should  be  put  on  with  galvanized  nails,  which  must  not  be 
driven  too  hard  for  fear  of  cracking  and  yet  hard  enough  to  prevent 
loosening  or  rattling,  and  if  the  cost  is  not  too  great,  copper  should  be 
used  for  all  gutters  and  flashings.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  lay  the 
first  three  or  four  courses  of  a  slate  roof  above  the  gutter  in  elastic 
cement,  and  also  all  hips  and  ridges. 

Window  Frames,  Following  the  completion  of  the  roof  will 
come  the  preparation  of  the  side  walls  to  receive  their  finish,  and  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  set  the  window  frames.  In  wooden  houses 
the  stud  will  usually  make  one  side  of  the  weight  box,  and  the  frame 
will  consist  only  of  the  "pulley  stile"  and  casing.  Sometimes  the 
boarding  is  kept  back  from  the  edge  of  the  studding  and  the  casing 
is  set  upon  the  studding  with  a  piece  of  finish  or  a  "back-band",  put 
over  the  joint  with  tarred  paper,  or  better  still,  strips  of  zinc,  to  keep 
out  the  water.  (Fig.  38.)  In  case  the  frame  is  set  against  the  usual 


52 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


•ir, 


Fig.  38.    Window  Frame  Flush  with 
Boarding. 


four-inch  studding  the  outer  casing  will  form  one  side  of  the  groove 

in  which  the  sash  slides,  but  in  the  other  case  there  will  be  room  to 

put  a  strip  five-eighths  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  inside  of  the 

casing,  moving  the  sashes  in  and 

leaving  a  space  for  mosquito 

guards.     (Fig.  39.)     The  top  of 

the  frame  must  be  flashed  with 

lead  and  the  bottom   of   the  sill 

grooved,  to  receive  the  top  of  the 

shingles  or  clap-boarding,  which 

will  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  frames 

are  set.     Pockets  of  canvas,  in 

which  the  window  sill  is  set,  are 

advisable   in    exposed  situations. 

Porch  and  Piazza.  Before  the  clapboarding  or  shingles  of  the 
walls  can  be  completed,  the  porch  and  piazza  finish  must  be  put  up. 
The  floors  should  be  framed  with  the  joists  running  parallel  with 
the  house  walls  so  that  the  boards  will  run  in  and  out,  and  they  must 
also  pitch  away  from  the  house  at  about  the  rate  of  two  inches  in 
twelve  feet.  The  tops  of  the  piazza  joists  should  be  set  about  six 

inches  below  the  main  house 
and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  bevel 
off  the  tops,  leaving  only  a  nar- 
row edge  for  nailing,  so  that 
the  water,  which  will  run  be- 
tween the  joints  if  the  floor  is 
.  open,  will  find  little  surface 

to  remain  upon.  (Fig.  40.) 
Sometimes  the  joists  and 
girders  are  covered  with  tarred 
paper.  The  roof  of  the  piazza, 
which  is  covered  with  tin,  will 

need  especial  attention  to  see  that  it  is  given  a  proper  pitch  and 
that  the  tin  is  turned  up  against  the  boarding  of  the  house  wall  at 
least  six  inches  to  be  clapboarded  over.  The  quality  of  the  tin 
should  be  examined  and  care  taken  to  have  it  painted  on  the  under 
side  before  being  laid,  and  that  the  joints  are  well  locked  and  soldered. 
Blocks  must  be  set  on  the  tin  roof  and  flashed  and  soldered,  to  which 


Fig.  39.    Window  Frame  Outside  of 
Boarding. 


53 


46  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  balcony  posts  are  to  be  secured;  and  where  the  finish  of  porch 
or  piazza  ends  against  the  house,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
connection  is  thoroughly  flashed  with  lead. 

Clapboarding  and  Siding.  The  clapboarding  of  the  side  walls 
will  be  begun  at  the  top  and  put  on  from  a  staging  which  is  laid  on 
brackets  bolted  to  the  boarding  and  lowered  as  the  work  progresses. 
The  term  "clapboard"  is  used  almost  entirely  in  New  England  and 
corresponds  to  the  word  "siding"  as  used  elsewhere.  Clapboards 
are  all  quarter  sawed  being  cut  from  the  log  by  a  circular  saw  which 
cuts  always  toward  the  center,  and  they  are  cut  four  feet  long,  six 
inches  wide  and  one  half  an  inch  thick  at  the  butt.  Siding  is  of  a 
similar  section  but  a  little  thicker  and  is  commonly  sawed  from  the 
log  in  the  same  manner  as  boards  in  lengths  of  twelve  to  sixteen  feet. 
Either  clapboards  or  siding  make  a  good  wall  covering  and  the  best 
should  always  be  quarter  sawed  and  laid 
over  a  good  quality  of  sheathing  paper, 
which  is  generally  put  on  in  horizontal 
layers,  each  layer  being  lapped  about 
two  inches  and  breaking  joints  with 
Fig.  40.  Piazza  joists.  the  paper  and  flashings  already  put  be- 

hind the  finished  work. 

There  are  many  good  brands  of  paper  on  the  market  with  very 
little  to  choose  between,  the  principal  qualities  required  being  tough- 
ness and  soundness.  A  kind  of  siding  called  'novelty  siding"  is 
often  used  for  cheap  summer  houses.  This  is  nailed  directly  to  the 
studding  without  any  rough  boarding,  but  the  omission  of  the  rough 
boarding  is  done  at  a  great  loss  in  strength  and  warmth. 

Wall  Shingles.  If  the  walls  were  to  be  shingled  the  same 
care  would  have  to  be  taken  as  in  shingling  the  roof,  except  that  the 
shingles  on  the  walls  may  be  exposed  five  or  six  inches  and  they  may 
be  of  a  quality  called  "clears",  in  which  the  exposed  lower  third  is 
free  from  imperfections.  Shingling  undoubtedly  makes  a  warmer 
coating  than  clapboards  or  siding,  as  there  are  always  three  thick- 
nesses to  one  of  clapboards,  but  the  choice  is  generally  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  buikling  and  the  effect  desired. 


54 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  47 

LATHING    AND    PLASTERING. 

By  the  time  that  the  outside  finish  has  been  brought  to  this  stage, 
the  inside  of  the  house  will  have  been  given  over  to  a  new  set  of 
mechanics,  the  lathers.  The  trade  of  lathing,  although  a  wood 
working  trade,  is  in  most  localities  distinct  from  the  trade  of  the 
carpenter,  and  the  lathers  will  have  come  to  the  building  to  put  on 
laths  and  nothing  else.  For  this  reason  it  will  be  well  for  the  super- 
intendent to  see  personally  that  all  of  the  furring  has  been  completed 
and  done  properly.  Walls,  ceilings  and  soffits  should  be  carefully 
examined  to  be  sure  that  their  surfaces  are  true,  level  and  plumb; 
chimney  breasts  and  projections  of  all  kinds  tried  with  a  square  to 
see  that  all  angles  are  true,  corners  must  be  examined  to  see  that  nail- 
ings  are  provided  where  the  laths  are  to  make  an  angle,  and  grounds 
and  corner  beads  set  wherever  necessary  for  nailings,  or  for  a  finish. 

Corner  Beads.  The  use  of  corner  beads  is  a  matter  of  custom, 
being  general  in  New  England,  and  more  rarely  used  in  the  West. 
In  recent  years  the  use  of  metal  corner  beads  has  become  common, 
and  these  are  to  be  preferred  where  a  sharp  corner  is  desired.  Either 
a  wooden  or  metal  corner  bead  should  be  used,  as  it  results  in  a  saving 
of  time  to  the  plasterer,  and  being  set  and  rigidly  secured  by  the 
carpenter  while  furring  the  house,  a  plumb  and  square  corner  is 
assured.  The  superintendent  should  see  that  all  beads  are  in  one 
length,  and  that  they  are  set  plumb  and  square.  Especial  attention 
must  be  paid  to  arches,  since  the  perfect  shape  of  the  arch  is  deter- 
mined by  the  accuracy  of  the  beads,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  remedy 
any  defects  after  the  plaster  has  been  applied. 

Lathing.  Being  satisfied  that  the  rough  work  has  been  put 
in  place  correctly,  the  lathers  are  set  to  work,  and  it  will  be  well  to 
visit  the  building  before  much  of  the  lathing  has  been  done,  to  see 
that  the  laths  are  given  the  requisite  number  of  nailings,  and  are 
spaced  properly.  Three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart  is  the  right  width, 
but  there  is  generally  a  tendency  to  put  them  too  near  together,  in 
which  case  the  mortar  will  not  press  through  and  form  a  sufficient 
key.  If  spaced  too  far  apart  the  wet  mortar  will  not  sustain  its  own 
weight.  The  matter  of  breaking  joints  is  another  important  matter, 
the  usual  way  being  to  break  joints  every  sixth  course  (A,  Fig.  41), 
but  a  better  ceiling  is  obtained  by  breaking  joints  at  every  lath.  Over 


-IN 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


door  and  window  openings  the  laths  must  extend  at  least  to  the  next 
stud  beyond,  to  prevent  cracking  (B).  The  direction  of  the  laths 
must  never  be  changed,  and  this  is  a  point  which  will  need  to  be 
remembered,  as  there  is  a  great  temptation  to  fill  small  spaces  which 
occur  with  laths  running  diagonally  or  otherwise,  even  if  they  come 
at  right  angles  to  the  other  lathing  (C).  This  must  not  be  allowed, 
as  cracks  are  sure  to  appear  where  the  change  in  direction  occurs. 
The  laths  themselves  should  be  well  seasoned  and  free  from  large 
or  black  knots,  bark  or  stains.  Bark,  which  is  usually  found  on  the 
edges,  is  a  serious  defect,  and  any  laths  showing  this  should  be  pulled 
off  and  fresh  laths  replaced,  as  it  will  invariably  cause  a  stain  in  the 
plaster. 


n  n   n  n  n 


A 


B 


C 

COOK  OPENING 


Fig.  41.    Lathing. 


u 


Metal  Laths.  The  use  of  metal  lathing  is  continually  in- 
creasing and  is  a  practice  which  should  be  encouraged  even  for  wooden 
houses.  This  form  of  lathing  holds  the  plaster  more  firmly  and  is 
not  so  liable  to  crack  or  sag,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  detach  it 
even  if  soaked  by  water.  Added  to  this  are  the  fire-resisting  qualities, 
which  render  the  use  of  metal  lathing  always  advisable  for  the  soffits 
of  stairs  in  public  buildings,  under  galleries  and  over  all  hot  air  pipes 
enclosed  in  partitions.  Metal  laths  should  always  be  used  where 
wooden  walls  connect  with  brick  walls  or  chimneys,  and  wherever 
a  solid  timber  of  any  size  is  to  be  plastered  over,  a  strip  of  metal 
lathing  covering  the  timber  and  lapping  well  on  to  the  adjoining 


56 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  49 

wooden  laths,  will  tend  to  prevent  cracks  which  will  occur  if  wooden 
laths  only  are  used.  For  exterior  plastering  galvanized  01  painted 
lathing  should  be  used,  furred  at  least  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  from 
the  boarding. 

Plastering.  With  the  completion  of  the  lathing  the  house  will 
be  ready  for  the  plasterer.  Already  the  mortar  will  have  been  mixed, 
and,  piled  in  large  stacks,  should  have  been  standing  for  a  week  or 
more.  The  sand  and  lime  having  passed  the  same  scrutiny  and  tests 
which  we  employed  when  making  the  mortar  for  the  mason-work, 
the  only  thing  necessary  will  be  to  see  that  the  mortar  is  well  mixed 
and  tempered  and  that  hair  of  the  proper  amount  and  quality  is 
added  at  the  proper  time. 

Mixing.  For  the  best  result  the  lime  should  be  thoroughly 
slaked  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  adding  the  hair,  which  must 
be  thoroughly  beaten  up  and  mixed  with  the  lime  paste  with  a  hoe, 
and  the  necessary  amount  of  sand  added.  This  mixture  should 
then  be  stacked  outside  of  the  building  as  long  as  possible  before 
being  used,  in  our  case  at  least  ten  days.  When  ready  for  applying 
small  quantities  of  this  mixture  are  wet  up  with  water  to  the  proper 
consistency,  tempering,  this  is  called.  Unless  particular  care  is 
taken  the  sand  and  hair  will  be  added  as  soon  as  the  lime  is  slaked 
as  it  is  much  more  convenient  to  do;  but  this  should  not  be  allowed 
as  the  lime  does  not  always  get  wholly  slaked  and  the  steam  and  heat 
of  the  slaking  lime  will  burn  the  hair  and  destroy  its  strength. 

Another  practice  which  should  be  avoided,  is  that  of  mixing 
the  mortar  in  the  basement  of  the  building  as  the  steam  and  moisture 
will  penetrate  to  all  parts  of  the  building  at  a  time  when  the  imme- 
diate application  of  the  plastering  gives  no  opportunity  for  drying 
off.  In  regard  to  the  proportions,  about  one  and  one-half  bushels 
of  hair  and  three  barrels  of  sand  to  a  cask  of  lime  is  a  good  ratio,  but 
the  amount  of  sand  will  in  ordinary  cases  be  determined  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  mixer,  who  should  be  a  competent  and  experienced  man. 

Applying  the  Mortar.  When  the  mortar  is  ready  for  putting 
on  the  laths,  we  must  see  that  the  first  or  scratch  coat  is  well  trowelled 
to  push  it  through  the  spaces  between  the  laths  so  as  to  form  a  good 
key.  In  ordinary  two-coat  work  this  first  coat  is  put  on  thick  enough 
to  come  within  an  eighth  of  an  inch  or  less  of  the  face  of  the  grounds 
and  beads,  as  the  finish  or  skim  coat  is  merely  a  thin  veneer  of  lime 


57 


50  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

putty  and  fine  white  sand,  trowelled  and  brushed  to  a  hard  surface. 
In  three-coat  work,  the  first  coat  is  put  on  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  thick  and  when  somewhat  hard  it  is  scratched  with  diagonal 
lines  nearly  through  to  the  laths.  As  soon  as  this  coat  is  dry,  the 
second  coat  is  applied  and  brought  to  a  plane  with  all  angles  and 
corners  true  and  plumb.  On  large  surfaces  or  important  work  this 
is  best  done  by  running  "screeds",  which  are  strips  of  mortar  six 
to  eight  inches  wide  and  three  or  four  feet  apart,  carefully  laid  and 
levelled  and  plumbed  with  corners  and  angles  made  true  and  brought 
to  the  line  of  the  second  coat,  which  is  filled  in  between  these  upon 
the  scratch  coat  and  brought  to  a  line  by  running  straight  edges  from 
screed  to  screed.  Upon  this  second  coat  is  applied  the  third  or 
finishing  coat,  usually  either  the  skim  coat  as  upon  two-coat  work, 
or  a  "white-coat"  which  is  made  by  mixing  plaster  of  paris  and 
marble  dust  with  the  lime  putty.  If  a  rougher  finish  is  desired,  as 
for  frescoing,  a  coarse  sand  in  greater  quantities  may  be  mixed  with 
the  lime  putty  and  floated  with  a  pine  or  cork -faced  float.  By  con- 
sulting the  specifications  we  find  that  this  finish  is  called  for  in  two- 
coat  work  to  be  left  "medium  rough." 

Screens.  Before  the  plastering  is  begun  the  windows  must 
be  closed  in  with  screens  made  of  cotton  cloth  tacked  upon  wooden 
frames,  made  to  fit  the  window  frames.  These  are  not  only  to  protect 
the  plastering  from  freezing,  by  which  ordinary  lime  mortar  is  com- 
pletely ruined,  but  also  to  prevent  unequal  drying  of  the  finished 
walls  which  will  occur  near  the  windows  in  good  breezy  weather. 

Exterior  Plastering.  The  plastering  of  exterior  walls  is  done 
to  a  large  extent  in  Canada  and  the  British  possessions  and  is  used  to 
increasing  extent  in  the  United  States.  This  is  best  done  over  matched 
boarding  by  furring  off  with  seven-eighths  inch  strips  and  using  wire 
or  other  metal  lathing  which  later  events  have  shown  is  better  if 
galvanized  or  painted.  The  plastering  should  be  three-coat  work, 
with  one-third  of  Portland  cement  for  all  three  coats,  the  last  having 
the  coarse  sand  or  gravel  if  a  rough  finish  is  desired.  If  metal  lathing 
is  not  easily  procured  a  good  result  is  obtained  by  lathing  upon  the 
boarding  diagonally  in  one-and-one-half  inch  spaces  and  repeating 
the  lathing  diagonally  in  the  opposite  direction,  all  well  nailed  and 
secure.  Upon  this  we  may  plaster  as  upon  the  metal  lathing. 


58 


EXTERIORS  OF  RESIDENCE  FOR  DR.  GRAFTON  MUNROE. 

Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Architect,  Boston,  Mass. 
Brick,  Plaster,  and  Shingle.    House  Completed  in  Winter  of  1906-07.    Cost,  $6,500. 


INO  •KLOJJ-'UN^L'1LWJ1VjKAr  JWlN-JVlUlNKL^L' 
£1    •  FRANK,- CHOUTEAU-  M5OWK  -AJKHnXCT-  9-  PAjeXsST-BOJTON  • 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  FLOOR  PLANS  OF  RESIDENCE  FOR  DR.  GRAFTON  MUNROE. 

Frank  Chouteau  Brown,  Architect,  Boston,  Mass. 

Exteriors  Shown  on  Opposite  Page. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


51 


HEAPEfcS 


5*1 


Concreting.  When  the  last  of  the  plastering  has  been  com- 
pleted the  concreting  of  the  cellar  should  be  begun  so  that  it  may  be 
drying  out  with  the  plastering.  For  this  the  best  cement  must  be 
used,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  shovelful  of  cement  to  two  of 
sand  well  mixed,  and  to  this  added  three  shovelfuls  of  screened  peb- 
bles or  broken  stone,  this  should  be  at  once  spread  upon  the  floor  and 
puddled  and  trowelled  to  a  perfectly  level  surface,  the  whole  topped, 
when  hard  enough,  with  one-half  inch  of  clear  Portland  cement. 

Fireplaces.  While  the  plastering  and  concreting  are  drying 
out  the  finished  fireplaces  are  usually  built.  These  are  to  be  of  bricks 
and  should  be  built  with  a  splay  of 
from  six  to  eight  inches  to  the  sides. 
(See  Fig.  34.)  The  back  lining  is  built 
up  plumb  for  about  six  courses  and 
then  inclined  toward  the  front  until 
an  opening  of  only  about  two  inches 
is  left.  (Fig.  42.)  If  a  flat  arch  or 
level  bricks  are  used  for  the  opening 
there  must  be  provided  a  wrought  iron 
bar,  or  better,  two  bars  which  must  be 
let  up  into  the  under  side  of  the  bricks 
so  as  not  to  be  seen.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  fireplaces  are  set  in 
the  exact  center  of  chimney  breasts  and 
rooms,  and  also  that  the  face  of  the 
bricks  are  set  in  the  required  position, 
usually  flush  with  the  plaster  line,  al- 


I 


F — 1 

Fig.  42.    Section  of  Fireplace. 

though  this  may  be  varied   to  allow  for  differences  in  the  form  of 
mantel  desired. 


PLUMBING. 

As  soon  as  the  plasterers  have  removed  their  stagings  from  the 
house,  the  plumber  can  at  once  complete  his  piping  work.  In  some 
cases  it  will  have  been  necessary  to  run  the  main  soil  pipes  concealed 
behind  the  plaster,  but  it  is  much  better  if  they  can  be  run  in  plain 
sight.  Extra  heavy  pipe  is  called  for,  to  be  plain  and  painted  on  the 
outside  with  red  lead.  These  pipes  should  have  been  tested  for  sand 
holes  before  delivery  and  being  plain  any  imperfections  in  the  casting 


50 


52 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


may  be  readily  seen,  as  would  not  be  the  case  if  they  were  asphalted 
as  usually  seen.  The  joints  of  the  soil  pipe  will  need  especial  watch- 
ing to  see  that  they  are  not  slighted  in  any  way.  All  the  joints  must 
be  made  of  oakum,  driven  in  tight,  and  finished  with  melted  lead 
which  will  be  poured  around  each  joint  and  then  caulked  all  around 
after  the  pipes  are  in  position.  (Fig.  43.)  It  is  never  well  to  com- 
plete the  joints  before  securing  the  pipes  in  place  as  the  jar  of  this 
handling  may  loosen  the  lead.  The  pouring  in  of  melted  lead  will 
not  secure  a  tight  joint  as  the  lead  shrinks  away  upon  cooling  and  it 
is  necessary  to  force  it  again  into  contact  with  the  pipe.  This  is  the 
object  of  caulking,  and  if  well  done  the  lead  in  the  joint  will  show 
marks  of  the  iron  all  around. 

Lead  Pipes.  Lead  pipes  will  be  most  easily  examined  on 
delivery,  when  the  ends  of  the  coil  will  be  stamped  with  some  figures 
or  letters  to  denote  the  weight  per  foot. 
After  the  pipe  has  been  cut  it  will  be  next 
to  impossible  to  tell  if  it  is  the  right  weight 
by  appearance.  All  lead  pipe  which  is  not 
new  should  be  rejected,  as  well  as  any  show- 
ing unequal  thickness.  The  running  of  lead 
pipes  should  be  carefully  watched  and  boards 
should  always  be  put  up,  against  or  upon 
which  the  pipes  may  be  securely  fastened. 
Lead  pipes  which  are  run  vertically  should 
be  fastened  by  hard  metal  "tacks",  which 
are  soldered  to  the  pipe  at  intervals  of  about 
three  feet.  Unless  this  rigid  fastening  is 
Fig.  43.  joint  of  soli  Pipe,  done,  the  pipes  will  "crawl"  and  droop 
downward  by  alternate  contraction  and 


LEAD 


"•(IAK.UM 


expansion.  Horizontal  pipes  may  be  secured  by  bands  but  should 
have  a  continuous  strip  of  wood  to  support  the  entire  length,  or  they 
will  in  time  sag  down  and  form  a  hollow  place,  from  which  the 
water  cannot  be  drawn  when  pipes  must  be  emptied.  The  pipe 
should  be  made  to  rest  upon  the  straight  support  and  never  be 
allowed  to  take  an  upward  bend  in  its  level  course,  as  a  bend  of  this 
kind  will  soon  become  filled  with  air  and  will  eventually  stop  the  flow 
of  the  water  unless  punctured  at  the  highest  point. 


60 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  53 

All  the  joints  in  lead  pipes  should  be  wiped  joints  as  specified 
and  no  cup  joints,  which  are  more  easily  made,  but  not  so  strong, 
should  be  accepted.  The  joining  of  lead  and  iron  pipes  must  be 
made  by  wiping  to  the  end  of  the  lead  pipe  a  strong  brass  "ferrule" 
which  can  be  caulked  into  the  iron  pipe.  This  will  need  to  be  looked 
out  for  as  it  is  a  great  temptation  to  many  plumbers  to  putty  the  lead 
pipe  into  the  socket  of  the  iron  pipe. 

Brass  Pipes.  For  the  hot  water  system  brass  pipes  are  to  be 
used  as  they  are  not  affected  by  the  alternate  warmth  and  chill  of  the 
water,  which  would  cause  lead  pipes  to  sag  between  the  supports. 
Indeed,  if  the  additional  expense  is  not  too  great,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  make  all  the  supply  pipes  of  brass,  which  can  be  obtained 
either  plain  or  coated  inside  with  tin.  If  brass  piping  is  used  it  must 
be  put  up  so  that  the  angles  and  bends  are  free  to  move  a  little,  or 
the  expansion  and  contraction  will  strain  the  fittings  and  produce 
leaks.  The  effect  which  the  water  will  have  upon  the  pipes  is  a 
matter  which  should  be  considered,  but  can  only  be  determined  by 
local  examination,  and  recommendations  as  to  the  use  of  piping  must 
be  made  with  reference  to  the  analysis  of  the  local  water  supply.  If 
brass  piping  is  used  it  should  be  semi-annealed  and  specified  as 
"iron  size",  that  is,  the  thickness  must  correspond  to  that  of  iron 
pipe  of  similar  size,  as  distinguished  from  so-called  "plumbers 
tubing",  the  use  of  which  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

Iron  Piping.  If  the  cost  of  brass  piping  proves  to  be  excessive, 
a  good  quality  of  iron  pipe  may  be  substituted  where  there  is  danger 
of  corrosion  of  lead  or  of  its  bursting  by  great  pressure.  Iron  pipe 
may  be  obtained  with  a  lining  of  block  tin,  which  forms  a  pure  and 
very  satisfactory  channel,  or  a  galvanized  or  zinc  coating  may  be 
used  which  will  be  less  expensive.  The  same  methods  of  piping  will 
be  necessary  in  running  iron  pipe  that  we  have  mentioned  in  piping 
with  brass,  and  besides,  we  must  take  precaution  against  condensa- 
tion which  will  take  place  upon  iron  pipes  in  warm  weather,  from 
the  fact  that  iron  conducts  heat  so  rapidly.  This  condensation  will 
be  so  great  that  it  may  on  occasion  trickle  down  and  cause  damage 
to  paper  or  decorations.  Where  there  is  this  danger,  the  pipes  should 
be  run  in  tubes  of  zinc  which  will  conduct  the  water  to  a  safe  outlet. 
This  precaution  should  be  taken,  even  in  the  case  of  lead  or  brass 


61 


54  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


piping,  when  costly  decorations  or  papers  are  liable  to  injury  from 
bursting  or  leaking  pipes. 

The  fastening  and  joining  of  all  pipes  should  be  carefully  watched 
to  see  that  they  are  run  in  straight  lines,  with  free  angles,  and  that 
hot  water  pipes  are  separated  by  a  little  space  from  cold  water  pipes 
so  that  there  will  be  no  transmission  of  heat  from  one  to  the  other. 
All  pipes  must  be  run  so  that  they  will  pitch  toward  some  faucet  or 
waste  cock,  which  must  be  provided  in  convenient  places  and  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  shut  off  and  drain  both  hot  and  cold  water 
pipes  in  any  given  part  of  the  house,  as  well  as  the  whole  system. 
In  New  England  it  is  customary  to  supply  the  bath  boiler  from  a 
separate  tank  in  the  attic,  this  tank  being  supplied  from  the  regular 
house  service  with  a  ball  cock  to  regulate  the  supply.  The  supply 
from  the  boiler  to  the  various  fixtures  is  made  to  return  again  to  the 
boiler  for  circulation,  which  allows  hot  water  to  be  drawn  at  once  at 
each  fixture.  From  the  highest  point  of  the  circulation  a  small 
"expansion  pipe"  is  run  to  the  tank  and  turned  over  the  edge  to 
dicsharge  just  above  the  water  line,  in  order  to  allow  the  steam  and 
froth  from  the  boiling  of  the  water  to  escape  into  the  tank.  This 
tank  should  be  supplied  with  an  overflow  to  some  convenient  fixture. 
Outside  of  New  England  the  tank  is  generally  omitted  and  the  boiler 
supplied  from  the  house  system,  but  this  requires  a  strong  boiler, 
usually  of  galvanized  iron  and  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  expansion 
system. 

Waste  Pipes  and  Traps.  The  waste  pipe  or  outlet  of  every 
plumbing  fixture  must  have,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  fixture,  a  trap, 
to  prevent  foul  odors  and  sewer  gas  from  issuing.  The  simplest 
form  of  trap,  and  in  its  improved  forms  one  of  the  best,  is  the  S-trap. 
(Fig.  44.)  This  consists  of  a  piece  of  pipe  bent  into  the  form  of  the 
letter  S,  with  a  screw  in  or  near  the  bottom  to  allow  of  cleaning  out. 
The  theory  of  this  trap  is  that  some  of  the  water  which  passes  through 
will  remain  in  the  trap,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  In  actual  use,  however, 
if  enough  in  volume  runs  through  to  completely  fill  the  outlet,  the 
falling  water  will  create  a  vacuum  at  A,  which  will  cause  the  outside 
air  to  force  out  the  water  in  the  trap  until  it  falls  below  the  bend  B, 
thus  destroying  the  seal.  If,  however,  an  inlet  is  provided  at  the 
highest  point  of  the  trap  A,  the  vacuum  in  the  outlet  pipe  will  be 
filled  from  this  source  without  disturbing  the  water  in  the  trap.  This 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  44.    S-Trap. 


inlet  pipe  must,  of  course,  be  carried  to  some  main  air  pipe;  and  so  it 
is  customary  to  run  beside  the  main  soil  pipe  a  line  of  "vent"  pipes 
to  which  the  different  trap  vents  are  attached,  the  main  vent  usually 
starting  from  the  base  of  the  soil  pipe  and 
entering  the  same  again  above  the  highest 
fixture.  A  greater  danger  exists  where  two 
or  more  fixtures  are  connected  with  the  same 
soil  pipe.  In  this  case  the  seal  of  the  lower 
fixture  will  be  broken  by  reason  of  the  col- 
umn of  water  discharged  from  the  upper 
fixture,  creating  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  soil 
pipe  and  the  outer  air  rushing  in  to  fill  the 
void  by  the  easiest  way,  will  force  the 
water  out  of  the  trap  below.  (Fig.  45.) 
This  is  a  real  danger,  and  should  be  guarded 
against  by  venting  the  trap  as  described. 
Another  way  of  guarding  against  syphonage  is  to  make  the  trap  so 
large  that  enough  water  will  drain  back  from  the  outlet  and  sides  of 
the  trap  to  restore  the  seal.  This  is  called 
a  pot  or  cesspool  trap.  City  plumbing  laws 
in  general  require  the  venting  of  all  traps, 
which  should  be  done  in  all  cases. 

Testing.  When  the  waste  and  air  pipes 
are  all  in  place  and  the  connections  for  the 
various  fixtures  are  put  in,  the  whole  system 
should  be  exposed  to  an  effective  test.  The 
simplest  and  most  efficient  to  employ  at  this 
stage  is  the  water  test  called  for  by  our  speci- 
fications. This  consists  in  closing  all  open- 
ings in  the  pipes  and  filling  the  whole  system 
with  water  to  the  top.  This  may  be  done  by 
attaching  a  hose  at  the  bottom  or  filling 
from  the  top.  The  superintendent  should 
be  on  hand  to  see  that  the  water  does  not 
lower  in  the  pipe  after  standing  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  when  the  system  may  be  pronounced 
tight.  If  however,  the  water  level  drops  it  is  evidence  of  a  leak  some- 
where which  must  be  sought  out  at  once.  In  a  tall  line  of  piping  the 


Fig.  45.    Syphonage  of 
Trap. 


63 


56  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

water  pressure  will  be  such  that  defective  joints  or  sand  holes  in  the 
piping  will  be  discovered  by  a  stream  of  water,  or  at  least  by  the 
trickling  of  water  down  the  pipe.  Imperfect  joints,  in  the  cast  iron 
pipes  may  be  remedied  by  a  more  careful  caulking,  but  the  presence 
of  sand  holes  can  only  be  remedied  by  replacing  the  defective  pipes 
which  should  be  subjected  again  to  the  test  until  the  system  proves 
absolutely  tight.  After  all  fixtures  are  set  and  all  connections  made 
another  test  is  usually  made.  This  may  be  the  "peppermint  test" 
or  the  "smoke  test".  In  the  former  test  a  vial  of  oil  of  peppermint, 
which  is  sold  sealed  for  the  purpose,  is  taken  to  the  roof  and  the  con- 
tents poured  into  the  top  of  the  soil  pipe.  A  quantity  of  hot  water 
is  immediately  poured  in  and  the  top  of  the  pipe  closed  by  stuffing 
in  paper  or  rags.  The  vapor,  charged  with  the  odor  of  peppermint, 
is  thus  unable  to  escape  and  will  penetrate  the  whole  system. 

All  drain,  air  or  waste  pipes  and  connections  are  immediately 
examined  and  any  odor  of  peppermint  detected  will  be  evidence  of  a 
defect  which  must  be  remedied.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  apply- 
ing this  test  which  should  be  done  by  separate  parties,  one  outside 
and  one  inside  of  the  house,  and  no  direct  communication  should  be 
held  until  the  test  is  pronounced  satisfactory. 

Another  method  of  applying  the  peppermint  test  is  to  close  all 
vent  pipes  and  vaporize  the  oil  of  peppermint  in  the  receiver  of  a 
small  air  pump,  and  then  force  the  vapor  into  the  system  under  pres- 
sure. The  receiver  is  provided  with  a  gauge  so  that  any  leak  will 
cause  a  fall  in  the  mercury  and  can  then  be  located  by  the  odor  of 
the  peppermint. 

The  smoke  test  is  required  in  our  case  and  is  done  by  closing 
the  system  as  for  the  peppermint  test  and  forcing  into  the  pipes 
smoke  from  oily  waste  or  some  similar  substance  by  means  of  a  bel- 
lows. When  the  pipes  are  filled  and  a  slight  pressure  produced  it 
is  shown  by  a  float  which  rises  and  remains  in  this  position  if  the 
joints  are  tight.  If  there  is  a  leak  the  float  falls  as  soon  as  the  bel- 
lows are  stopped  and  the  leak  may  be  located  by  the  issuing  of  smoke 
from  the  joint.  Special  machines  are  to  be  bought  for  making 
these  tests,  which  should  be  done  in  the  presence  of  the  architect 
or  superintendent. 

Fixtures.  In  general,  the  ideal  of  any  kind  of  plumbing  fix- 
tures consists  of  a  bowl,  tub  or  closet  in  one  piece,  supplied  by  a  sure 


64 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  46.    Hopper. 


and  quick  flow  of  water,  and  emptied  by  a  simple  and  ample  dis- 
charge. The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  quality  and  pattern 
are  as  called  for  by  the  specifications,  that  they  are  perfect  in  every 
respect  and  set  up  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  In  regard  to  closets 
there  are  several  types  from  which  to  choose.  The  simplest  of  these 
is  the  "  short  hopper".  This  consists  of  an 
earthenware  bowl  (Fig.  46),  and  a  trap, 
the  latter  being  sometimes  made  of 
earthenware,  and  often  a  lead  or  iron  trap 
to  which  the  bowl  is  bolted  (Fig.  47),  the 
contents  being  washed  into  the  soil  pipe 
by  a  discharge  of  water  all  around  the 
top  rim,  which  is  curled  over  and  perfo- 
rated or  brought  to  a  narrow  opening. 
An  improvement  of  this  form  known  as  the  "wash  down"  closet 
(Fig.  48),  in  which  a  deeper  trap  and  a  larger  water  area  is  formed 
than  that  made  by  the  regular  hopper  and  trap,  is  a  well-known 
pattern.  This  closet  requires  a  large  flush  of  water  to  remove  the 
contents  and  is  somewhat  noisy  on  that  account.  To  overcome  this 
and  to  assist  in  the  discharge  as  well,  there  has  been  invented  what 
is  known  as  the  "syphon-jet"  closet.  (Fig.  49.)  In  this  closet  a 

small  inlet  in  the  bottom  of 
the  basin  is  connected  with  the 
flush  pipe,  so  that  when  the 
bowl  is  flushed  a  jet  of  water 
shall  be  projected  upward 
which  assists  in  removing  the 


47.    Hopper  and  Trap. 


contents  of  the  basin  and  also 
in  filling  the  outlet,  which  is 
contracted  somewhat,  in  order 
that  the  flow  of  water  may  fill 
it  completely  and  produce  on  a 
large  scale  the  vacuum  as  pre- 
viously described  in  relation  to  the  S-trap,  so  that  the  pressure  of 
the  air  upon  the  water  in  the  basin  helps  to  push  out  the  contents. 
An  objection  to  the  jet  is  found  in  houses  which  are  to  be  left  unoc- 
cupied during  the  winter,  since  the  water  which  is  to  be  thrown  out 
to  form  the  jet  remains  in  the  bowl  even  when  the  trap  has  been 


65 


58 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


Fig.  48.    Wash-Down  Closet. 


emptied,  and  requires  especial  attention.  Another  form  of  syphon 
closet  produces  the  syphonic  action  without  the  jet  by  making  a  sud- 
den turn  in  the  outlet  pipe,  which  causes  the  flush  of  water  to  com- 
pletely fill  the  pipe  and  produce  a  vacuum  with  the  same  result  as 
described.  A  type  of  closet  called  the  "washout"  closet  was  formerly 

much  in  vogue  (Fig.  50),  but 
it  is  not  so  positive  in  its  action 
as  the  others  described,  and  is 
less  popular  than  formerly. 

Connections  and  Vents. 
Close  attention  should  be  paid 
to  the  connection  between  the 
closet  and  the  soil  pipe  as  this, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  hopper 
closet  with  metal  trap,  will 
come  on  the  sewer  side  of  the 
trap  and  must  be  made  abso- 
lutely tight.  Some  of  the  best 

closets  are  constructed  so  that  the  connection  shall  be  under  water 
and  any  leak  will  at  once  betray  itself.  (A,  Fig.  48.)  Another  pat- 
ented connection  retains  about  a  pint  of  water  in  a  ring  where  the 
connection  is  made,  which  will  appear  upon  the  floor  if  the  connection 
is  not  perfect.  The  connection 
from  this  point  to  the  soil  pipe  is 
usually  made  with  a  lead  bend, 
which  is  caulked,  by  means  of  a 
brass  ferrule,  into  the  soil  pipe. 

All  closets  should  be  provided 
with  a  "local  vent"  outlet,  a  tube 
extending  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  basin  to  which  a  galvanized 
pipe  may  be  attached  and  carried 
to  the  nearest  warm  flue  for  the 
ventilation  of  the  basin,  and  all 
traps,  especially  where  the  dis- 


Fig.  49.    Syphon-Jet  Closet. 


charge  of  higher  fixtures   may  create  a  vacuum  in  the    soil 
should  be  vented  to  the  main  stack  of  vent  pipes. 


pipe, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Tanks  and  Flushing.  The  usual  way  to  provide  for  a  sure 
supply  of  water  to  flush  out  the  closet  has  been  to  fit  up  over  it  a 
copper-lined  tank  supplied  from  the  house  service  and  regulated  by 
a  ball  cock.  The  operation  of  flushing  the  closet  is  performed  by 
pulling  a  chain  or  rod  which  raises 
a  heavy  plug  from  the  upper  end 
of  the  flush  pipe  and  causes  a  more 
or  less  prolonged  flow  of  water, 
when  the  plug  again  seats  itself 
and  the  tank  is  refilled.  (Fig.  51.) 
This  simple  operation  in  itself  is 
productive  of  considerable  noise 
and  there  are  on  the  market  many 
devices  aimed  to  secure  an  ample 
flow  with  a  minimum  of  noise. 
Another  form  of  tank,  and  espec- 
ially valuable  where  height  is  lim- 
ited is  called  the  "low  down"  tank.  (Fig.  52.)  In  these  the  loss  of 
power  of  gravity  is  made  up  by  enlarging  the  supply  and  they  are 
very  satisfactory  in  their  operation.  A  newer  and  increasingly  pop- 


Fig.  50.    Washout  Closet. 


Fig.  51.    Common  Tank. 


Fig.  52.    Low-Down  Tank. 


ular  form  of  flushing  closets  is  by  means  of  a  valve  which  delivers  a 
quantity  of  water  directly  from  the  general  service,  or  from  a  special 
supply,  and  then  closes  automatically. 


67 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  53.    Plug  and  Chain. 


These  valves  are  put  upon  the  market  by  different  dealers  under 
various  names,  but  are  about  all  identical  in  principle.  These  valves 
have  been  formerly  used  where  many  closets  are  to  be  supplied  or 
where  the  presence  of  any  kind  of  tank  is  undesirable,  but  are  coming 
more  into  favor  for  general  usage. 

Bowl  and  Tub.  Not  so  much 
choice  is  to  be  found  in  the  selec- 
tion of  bowls  and  tubs.  Of  the 
former  the  main  difference  is  to  be 
found  in  the  overflow  and  waste. 
These  appliances  have  advanced 
from  the  old  fashioned  plug  and 
chain  (Fig.  53),  to  the  most  advanced 
form  of  outside  connections  (Fig. 
54),  which  is  the  pattern  called  for 
by  our  specifications.  In  the  choice 
of  a  modern  tub  we  may  range  from  the  ordinary  roll-rim  enamelled 
iron  tub  with  painted  exterior,  which  is  excellent  in  all  respects, 
through  the  various  stages  of  finish  and  pattern  to  the  solid  porce- 
lain tubs  of  luxurious  design  and  finish.  Porcelain  goods  are  mar- 
keted in  three  grades  with  a  great  variation  of  price,  from  A,  which 
is  absolutely  perfect  in  every 
respect,  to  B,  which  allows 
of  slight  imperfections  and  C, 
which  is  more  imperfect,  but 
sound  and  whole. 

Enamelled  iron  goods 
are  put  on  the  market  in  two 
grades,  "guaranteed"  as  to 
the  enamel,  which  goods  will 
be  replaced  by  the  manufac- 
turer if  the  enamel  does  not  re- 
main perfect  for  a  reasonable 
time,  and  "unguaranteed,"  which  are  taken  at  the  purchaser's  risk. 
Cocks.  The  choice  of  cocks  for  the  fixtures  will  lie  between 
two  kinds,  the  "ground"  cock  and  the  "compression"  or  "screw 
down"  cock.  The  former  consists  of  a  ground  plug  through  which 
is  put  a  hole  in  line  with  the  aperture,  which  is  opened  and  closed  by 


Fig.  54.    Outside  Connection  for  Basin. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  55.    Ground  Cock. 


turning  the  plug  so  that  the  hole  is  in  the  range  of  the  bore  when 

open,  or  across  the  bore  when  closed.     (Fig.  55.)     Although  simple 

and  positive  in  action  this  form  of  cock  is  open  to  the  objections  that 

when  in"  constant  use  the  plug  and  socket  will  become  worn,  especially 

if  the  water  contains  any  sand  or  grit,  and  if  used  only  occasionally 

the  adjacent  parts  become  corroded  and 

the  plug  will  refuse  to  turn.         A  better 

form  is  the  compression  cock  (Fig.  56), 

in    which    the   spindle  is  screwed   hard 

down  upon  the  opening  and  is  given  a 

perfect  contact  by  means  of  a  washer  of 

leather  or  composition,  which  can  be 

easily  renewed  when  it  becomes  so  much 

worn  that  it  allows  the  cock  to  leak.     In 

general  the  cocks  in  bath  room  and  china  closets  should  be  nickel 

plated,  while  the  cocks  and  piping  of  kitchen  and  laundry  will  be 

more  satisfactory  if  of  polished  brass.     The    cold   water  cock  of 

these  fixtures,  and  of  the  pantry  sink  as  well,  should  have  a  hose 

nozzle  termination. 

When  the  plumbing  fixtures  have  been  installed,  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  they  are  properly 
protected,  from  accident  or  abuse,  until  the 
owner  is  ready  to  assume  the  care  of  the 
house. 

HEATING. 

While  the  plumbing  work  is  being  done, 

another  set  of  men  have  been  putting  in  the 

heating  apparatus. 

Selection.     The  selection  of  the  heating 

apparatus  will  depend  upon  local   custom, 
Fig.  56.  compression  cock,    expense  and  personal  preference.     Three 

principal   methods  present  themselves  with 

some  special  features  to  recommend  each.  These  are  the  hot  air 
furnace,  the  hot  water  heater,  and  the  steam  boiler.  The  simplest 
and  least  expensive  in  the  cost  of  installation  is  the  hot  air  furnace 
(Fig.  57),  which  also  has  the  merit  of  introducing  a  continuous  supply 
of  warmed  fresh  air  into  the  house.  Next  in  cost  of  installation,  is 


69 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


the  system  of  direct  steam  heating;  when  once  installed  the  cost  of 
maintenance  is  less  than  the  hot  air  furnace.  This  is  due  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  in  direct  steam  heating,  the  already  tempered  air  of  the 
rooms  is  simply  raised  to  the  desired  warmth,  and  fresh  air  must  be 
supplied  by  other  means.  This  system  has  the  advantage  of  being 
more  easily  adapted  to  the  heating  of  distant  parts  of  the  house,  and 
is  positive  in  its  action  at  all  times. 


Fig.  57.    Indirect  Draft  Furnace. 

Of  greater  cost  to  install,  but  with  some  advantages  in  main- 
tenance, is  the  system  of  direct  hot  water  heating.  This  is  similar 
to  direct  steam  except  that  hot  water  circulates  throughout  the  system 
instead  of  steam  and  herein  is  one  advantage  due  to  the  ease  with 
which  the  temperature  can  be  regulated. 

Steam  is  generated  by  the  raising  of  water  to  a  temperature  of 
212  degrees  F.,  and  so  the  radiators  of  a  steam  heating  system  are 


70 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  63 


always  at  about  the  same  temperature,  and  regulation  of  the  heat  is 
secured  by  shutting  off  and  turning  on  the  steam  at  intervals,  while 
with  hot  water  the  radiation  will  be  regulated  by  the  temperature  of 
the  water  which  is  in  circulation  all  the  time.  This  is  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage in  mild  weather  as  it  allows  of  a  smaller  fire  and  a  correspond- 
ing reduction  in  the  consumption  of  fuel. 

In  the  selection  of  a  heater  the  most  important  thing  is  to  be  sure 
that  the  heater,  whether  hot  air,  hot  water  or  steam,  is  amply  large 
enough  to  do  the  work.  Our  client  has  decided  to  heat  his  house  by 
means  of  hot  air  and  we  have  advised  him  to  put  in  a  furnace  which 
contains  a  large  air  chamber  in  order  that  the  rooms  may  be  supplied 
with  a  large  quantity  of  warm  air,  rather  than  a  smaller  quantity  of 
intensely  hot  air. 

Furnace.  For  economy  of  fuel  we  find  recommended  a  furnace 
of  the  type  known  as  indirect  draft.  In  this  type  the  heated  gases 
are  ordinarily  obliged  to  pass  downward  to  a  radiating  chamber  at 
the  base  and  thence  upward  again  before  escaping  into  the  chimney, 
thus  giving  off  a  large  proportion  of  their  heat.  Among  other  points 
to  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  the  furnace  is  the  grate,  which 
should  be  of  a  pattern  that  will  allow  of  easy  disposal  of  the  ashes 
and  clinkers  without  much  disturbance  of  the  fire.  The  construction 
of  the  fire  pot  is  of  great  importance  in  the  choice  of  the  furnace,  and 
here  the  choice  will  lie  between  a  heavy  cast  iron  .pot,  and  a  thin 
wrought  iron  or  steel  pot  with  a  lining  of  fire  bricks.  The  cast  iron 
pot  has  the  advantage  of  continuing  to  give  off  considerable  heat 
when  new  coal  is  put  on,  while  the  brick  linings  allow  the  furnace  to 
cool  off  more  while  the  fire  is  dull.  Other  points  to  be  desired  are 
a  large  combustion  chamber,  as  the  space  above  the  fire  is  called, 
and  ample  heating  surfaces,  so  arranged  that  they  will  not  become 
deadened  by  soot. 

Cold  Air  Box.  The  furnace,  which  has  been  selected  besides 
these  points,  on  account  of  the  smoothness  of  its  castings  and  the 
evidently  workmanlike  construction  of  its  joints  and  working  parts, 
is  made  to  set  over  a  circular  pit  into  which  the  cold  air  box  runs.  An 
important  feature  is  the  size  of  the  cold  air  box  which  should  be  of  a 
capacity  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  the  piping.  About 
one-sixth  less  is  the  close  rule  as  the  cold  air  will  expand  about  that 
amount  on  becoming  heated.  Unless  the  supply  from  the  cold  air 


71 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


box  is  ample  there  will  be  danger  that  the  long  pipes  will  draw  from 
the  shorter  pipes,  or  that  the  general  flow  will  be  weak  and  irregular. 
The  opening  of  the  cold  air  box  is  usually  placed  on  the  north  or  west 
side,  as  the  coldest  winds  generally  come  from  those  directions,  but 
a  better  way  is  to  carry  the  cold  air  box  completely  across  the  cellar 
with  a  connection  to  furnace  at  right  angles,  so  that  the  furnace  may 
draw  an  equal  supply  without  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
By  this  means  we  shall  avoid  the  very  disagreeable  feature  which  all 
who  have  heated  by  furnace  in  the  usual  way  will  have  experienced, 
of  finding  that  when  the  wind  is  high  from  the  side  where  the  cold 
air  is  taken,  the  chances  are  that  the  air  will  be  driven  so  rapidly 
through  that  it  does  not  get  sufficiently  heated,  but  comes  in  cold 
gusts  from  the  registers.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  wind  is  strong 
from  the  side  opposite  the  single  cold  air  opening,  the  suction  from 
the  lee  side  of  the  house  will  often  cause  the  air  to  flow  down  the 
registers  and  out  of  the  cold  air  box,  where  there  is  danger  of  the 
already  heated  air  becoming  hot  enough  by  reheating  to  set  the  cold 
air  box  on  fire,  if  it  is  of  wood.  To  guard  against  a  possibility  of 
this,  it  is  best  if  possible  to  make  all  air  ducts  of  galvanized  iron, 
which  is  safer  but  unfortunately  more  expensive.  In  certain  localities 
this  metal  construction  will  be  required  by  the  building  laws,  and 
is  to  be  recommended  in  all  cases. 

Location.  In  locating  the  furnace  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  pipes  are  of  about  the  same  length,  any  differences  should  be 
made  in  favor  of  pipes  running  north  or  west.  The  smoke  pipe 
should  be  run  as  directly  as  possible  and  should  never  come  nearer 
than  eight  inches  to  the  floor  beams  overhead.  Care  must  be  taken 
where  the  pipe  enters  the  flue  that  the  connections  are  tight,  and  that 
the  pipe  is  not  pushed  in  so  far  that  it  cuts  off  the  area  of  the  flue. 

Supervision.  Beyond  seeing  that  the  apparatus,  the  piping 
and  the  registers  are  ample  in  size  and  properly  heated,  the  superin- 
tendent should  watch  carefully  to  see  that  there  is  no  danger  from 
fire.  All  pipes  which  are  run  in  concealed  places  should  be  double, 
or  at  least  well  protected  by  bright  tin  or  asbestos  covering  and  the 
use  of  wire  for  lathing  over  them.  The  furnace  should  have  over  it, 
a  circular  shield  of  metal  or  else  plastering  on  wire  laths  for  an  ample 
space  on  the  ceiling.  In  running  the  pipes,  sharp  bends  and  sudden 
contraction  or  distortion  of  the  pipes  must  be  avoided,  and  free  en- 


72 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE' 


trance  of  pipes  to  the  register  boxes  must  be  provided  in  all  cases. 
The  practice  of  topping  pipes  or  running  one  pipe  to  supply  two 
registers,  is  productive  of  continual  annoyance,  as  it  is  almost  certain 
that  one  register  will  get  the  greater  part  of  the  heat  at  the  expense  of 
the  other.  The  registers  should  always  be  set  in  borders  of  slate  or 
soapstone,  or  in  the  iron  rims  which  are  provided  and  they  should 
be  free  in  action  and  tight  when  closed. 

STEAM   HEATING. 

Another  efficient  method  of  heating  for  country  houses,  is  by 
direct  steam  radiation.     This  consists  in  circulating  steam  through 


Pig.  58.    Two-Pipe  System. 

radiators  or  coils  placed  directly  in  the  rooms  and  halls  to  be  heated. 
This  may  be  done  under  high  or  low  pressure,  but  the  low  pressure 
gravity  return  system  is  generally  used  for  house  heating,  a  pressure 
of  from  two  to  ten  pounds  being  rated  as  "low  pressure". 

Piping.  Three  systems  of  piping  are  used  in  this  form  of  heating 
called  the  "two-pipe  system",  the  "one-pipe  relief  system",  and  the 
"one-pipe  circulating  system".  In  the  two-pipe  system  the  main 
pipe  is  taken  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  carried  by  branches 
along  the  cellar  ceiling,  pitching  gradually  down  until  all  of  the 
"risers"  have  been  taken  off,  when  it  drops  down  and  returns  with 


73 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


a  slight  pitch  to  the  boiler,  below  the  water  line.  (Fig.  58.)  This 
is  called  a  "wet"  or  "sealed"  return.  Sometimes  the  return  pipes 
are  run  overhead  and  this  is  called  a  "dry"  return.  This  dry  return 
is  more  productive  of  noise  in  the  pipes  than  the  wet  return  and  is  not 
so  often  used.  In  either  case  one  set  of  pipes  is  run  from  the  main 
supply  pipe  in  the  cellar  to  the  different  radiators  and  another  pipe 
carries  the  condensation  from  the  radiators  to  the  return  pipe.  This 
requires  two  sets  of  pipes,  valves,  and  connections  and  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  one-pipe  systems  which  are  generally  used. 


Fig. 


One-Pipe  Relief  System. 


One-Pipe  Relief  System.  In  this  system  the  arrangement 
of  the  cellar  piping  is  the  same  as  in  the  "wet"  return  previously 
described,  but  the  supply  to  the  radiators  consists  of  but  one  pipe, 
taken  off  from  the  main  supply  in  the  cellar,  the  steam  flowing  in, 
and  the  condensation  draining  out,  through  this  single  pipe  to  the 
main  and  thence  through  frequent  "drip  pipes",  to  the  return  pipe, 
near  the  cellar  floor.  (Fig.  59.)  If  the  return  pipe  in  the  cellar  is 
run  overhead,  as  in  the  "dry"  return  system  the  drip  pipes  should 
be  connected  to  the  return  main  by  a  loop  falling  below  the  return, 
thus  forming  a  trap  and  preventing  the  steam  from  flowing  directly 
into  the  return. 


74 


EXTERIORS  AND  INTERIOR  OF  HOUSE  SHOWN  ON  OPPOSITE  PAGE. 


OECOND   FLGDE   PLAN 

TEE.T 


F1ROT    FU2)B   PLAN 

3CAI.E,    ?.U.?1  ?  t  7  ?  ? -t","f    FE.ET  

SUMMER  HOME  OF  DR.  J.  B.  McFATRICH,  LAKE  GENEVA,  WIS. 
W.  Carbys  Zimmerman,  Architect,  Chicago,  111. 

e  House  Built  in  1906.    Plan  is  Conditioned  by  Narrowness  of  Lot  Overlooking  the  Lake.    The  Interesting 
Feature  is  the  Screened-in  Porch,  which,  by  a  Series  of  Folding  Doors,  can  be  Made  Part  of  the 
Living  Room.    The  High  Frieze  in  the  Living  Room  is  Decorated  with  Woodland 
Scenes  Showing  the  Lake  and  Hills  in  the  Distance.     Exterior  and 
Interior  Views  Shown  on  Opposite  Page. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


(57 


One=Pipe  Circuit  System.  In  this  system  the  main  supply 
is  carried  to  the  ceiling  of  the  cellar  and  there  makes  a  complete 
circuit  of  the  building  at  a  downward  pitch  and  connects  again  with 
the  boiler  below  the  water  line.  (Fig.  60.)  From  this  circulation 


Fig.  60.    One-Pipe  Circuit  System. 

pipe  single  risers  are  taken  to  the  radiators,  and  the  condensation 
flows  back  through  the  same  pipes  to  the  circulation  pipe,  and  is 
carried  along  with  the  steam  and  returned  to  the  boiler.  This  circu- 
lation pipe  should  be  of  large  size  and  with  a  good  pitch  all  the  way. 

In  all  single-pipe  systems  the 
piping  must  be  larger  than  in  the 
double-pipe  systems,  as  the  steam 
and  the  returning  water  are  flowing 
through  the  pipes  in  opposite  di- 
rections at  the  same  time.  This 
may  be  obviated  by  running  a  singje 
riser  to  the  top  of  the  building  and 
then  branching  out  to  supply  the  different  radiators  by  single  pipes 
run  back  to  the  basement.  In  this  case  the  steam  and  water  flow 
in  the  same  direction  and  for  large  work  this  is  often  done. 

Valves  and  Connections.     Careful     examination    should    be 
made  of  the  valves  and  pipe  connections  to  see  that  they  are  efficient 


Fig.  61.    Air  Valve. 


75 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


and  properly  applied.  Many  styles  of  valves  are  available,  and  only 
well  known  or  well  tested  patterns  should  be  allowed.  Of  air  valves 
for  steam  radiators  the  simplest  form  is  the  "pet  cock",  a  screw  valve 
operated  by  hand  (Fig.  61),  but  there  are  several  forms  of  automatic 
valves  on  the  market  which  will  allow  the  escape  of  cold  air  from 
the  pipes,  but  are  instantly  closed  as  soon  as  affected  by  the  hot  steam. 
This  is  done  by  the  expansion  of  a  metal  part  which  closes  the  orifice. 
Radiators.  The  form  of  steam  radiator  in  general  use  is  the 
cast  iron  radiator  (Fig.  62).  This  consists  of  a  series  of  loops  con- 
nected at  the  bottom.  The 
steam  entering  at  one  end  forces 
the  air  out  of  the  air  valve 
placed  about  midway  of  the  last 
section.  The  two  end  sections 
are  of  the  same  internal  pat- 
terns as  the  others  but  are  cast 
with  legs. 

Pipe  radiators  (Fig.  63)  are 
often  used  and,  where  design  is 
not  an  object,  the  use  of  circu- 
lation coils  of  piping  may  be  per- 
mitted. 

Boilers.  Many  of  the  ordi- 
nary types  of  steam  boilers  are 
used  for  steam  heating  and  in 
addition  to  these  there  is  a  cast 
iron  sectional  boiler  which  is  used  for  dwelling  houses  to  a  great 
extent.  (Fig.  64.)  The  main  thing  is  to  select  some  well-known 
type  and  to  see  that  it  is  carefully  set,  with  all  attachments,  which 
will  usually  be  described  in  the  contracts.  This  method  of  direct 
radiation  lacks  the  advantage  of  the  introduction  of  fresh  air  into 
the  house,  but,  if  care  is  taken  to  provide  for  this  by  other  means,  it 
is  economical  and  positive  in  its  action.  The  main  point  to  be  seen 
is  that  heater,  pipes  and  radiators  are  amply  large,  and  that  the  radi- 
ators are  well  placed  and  supplied  by  carefully  graded  pipes,  tightly 
and  neatly  connected.  Cellar  pipes  should  be  covered  with  some 
of  the  patented  sectional  pipe  coverings,  and  radiators  and  all  pipes 
which  are  exposed  to  view  may  be  coated  with  bronze  of  a  desired 


Fig. 


Cast-Iron  Radiator. 


76 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


color.  Where  pipes  pass  through  floors  or  partitions  they  should  be 
protected  by  sleeves  three-quarters  of  an  inch  larger  than  the  pipes, 
and  collars  should  be  neatly  placed  around  the  pipes  at  the  floor  and 
ceiling,  or  on  each  side  of  the  partition, 

HOT  WATER  HEATING. 

Another  method  of  heating  is  by  a  similar  application  of  direct 
hot  water  radiation.  This  consists  in  circulating  hot  water  through 
radiators,  which  are  placed  in  the  rooms  as  in  the  case  of  direct  steam 
heating.  The  hot  water  is  conducted  from  the  main  heater  in  the 


Fig.  63.    Wrought-Iron  Pipe  Radiator. 

cellar  through  the  pipes  and  radiators,  and  the  air  is  warmed  by  the 
direct  radiation  from  these  sources.  The  principle  of  this  circulation 
is  found  in  the  difference  in  density  and  volume  between  hot  and  cold 
water.  Water  is  at  its  greatest  density  at  about  39  degrees  F.  When 
heated  its  density  decreases  and  its  volume  increases,  so  that  as  soon 
as  the  fire  in  the  boiler  is  started  the  circulation  begins,  and  the  water 
becoming  lighter  flows  up  through  the  pipes  and  radiators  giving  off 
its  heat,  until  becoming  colder  and  heavier  it  flows  back  through  the 
return  pipes  to  the  heater.  This  process  is  continuous  as  long  as 


77 


70  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

any  heat  is  applied  to  the  water  in  the  boiler,  the  velocity  of  flow 
depending  upon  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  supply 
and  return,  and  the  height  of  the  radiators  above  the  boiler. 

Hot  Water  Piping.  The  system  of  hot  water  piping  consists 
of  a  free  circulation  of  water  from  the  heater  to  the  radiators  and 
back  to  the  heater  again.  The  supply  pipe  is  taken  off  at  the  top 
of  the  heater  and  main  and  branches  are  run  with  an  incline  upward, 
the  return  pipes  being  parallel  to  these  and. connected  with  the  bottom 


Fig.  64.    Cast-Iron  Boiler. 

of  the  heater.  "  Risers  are  taken  off  the  tops  of  the  mains  and  return 
pipes  connected  to  the  return  mains  in  a  like  manner.  (Fig.  65.)  As 
this  system  depends  upon  the  force  of  gravity  to  keep  up  its  circula- 
tion an  expansion  tank  (Fig.  66)  must  be  provided,  high  enough 
above  the  highest  radiator  to  insure  free  circulation,  and  the  pipes 
should  be  run  so  that  any  radiator  may  be  shut  off  without  interfering 
with  the  general  circulation.  This  tank  should  be  supplied  with  a 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


71 


glass  gauge  and  an  overflow  to  some  convenient  place,  and  an  open 
vent  pipe  should  be  taken  from  the  top.  The  connection  from  the 
heating  system  enters  at  the  bottom  and  an  automatic  connection 
should  be  made  with  the  main  water  supply.  A  water  connection 
should  also  be  made  at  the  heater  to  be  used  when  the  system  is  first 
filled,  as  by(  this  means  the  air  is  driven  upward  and  discharged 
through  the  vent  on  the  tank. 

The  expansion  tank  should  be  large  enough  to  contain  a  gallon 
of  water  for  every  forty  square  feet  of  radiation. 


Fig.  65.    Piping  for  Hot  Water  Heating. 

Valves.  Special  valves  are  made  for  use  with  hot  water  radia- 
tors, the  main  advantage  being  a  device  for  quick  closing,  a  half  turn 
being  usually  sufficient  to  open  or  close  the  valve.  Connections  with 
the  radiators  may  be  made  at  the  top  or  bottom,  the  return  pipe  being 
always  at  the  bottom.  Only  one  valve  is  necessary  to  stop  the  flow 
of  water  through  the  radiator  and  this  is  put  on  the  supply  pipe,  the 
return  connection  being  made  by  a  union  elbow. 

The  ordinary  "pet  cock"  is  generally  used  for  an  air  valve,  but 
there  are  several  forms  of  automatic  valves  which  are  operated  by 
a  float  which  allows  the  air  to  escape  when  the  water  line  is  lowered 
but  closes  upon  the  flowing  in  of  the  water. 


79 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Hot  Water  Heaters.     The  heater  differs  from  a  steam  boiler 
mainly  in  the  omission  of  the  space  allowed  for  steam,  the  hot  water 

heater  being  filled  with  water  in 
circulation  instead  of  steam,  so 
that  it  is  essential  that  the  heat 
should  strike  the  surface  in  such  a 
vv  manner  as  to  increase  the  natural 
circulation. 

Radiators.  Radiators  for  use 
with  hot  water  differ  from  the 
ordinary  steam  radiators  in  hav- 
ing a  passage  at  both  bottom  and 
top,  as  showm  in  the  illustration, 
Fig.  67.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
to  draw  off  the  air  which  gathers 
at  the  top  of  each  loop.  These 
Fig.  ee.  Expansion  Tank.  radiators  may  be  used  for  steam 

.    as  well  as  hot  water  and  are 

arranged  for  either  top  or  bottom  connections.  Sometimes  the  pip- 
ing is  so  arranged  that,  instead  of  running  pipes 
to  each  radiator  from  the  heater,  a  single  riser  is 
carried  up  to  the  expansion  tank  from  which  pipes 
are  run  to  supply  the  drops  to  which  the  radiators  are 
connected.  (Fig.  68.)  In  this  case  the  radiators 
are  supplied  at  the  top  and  emptied  at  the  bottom, 
and  as  the  air  in  this  system  rises  at  once  to  the  ex- 
pansion tank  and  escapes  through  the  vent,  no  air 
valves  are  required  on  the  radiators. 

Other  methods  of  heating  are  by  indirect  steam, 
indirect  hot  water,  and  a  combination  of  hot  air  and 
steam,  and  the  same  general  principles  will  apply  to 
these  methods  as  to  those  which  have  been  consid- 
ered. The  indirect  application  of  steam  or  hot- 
water  is  the  system  by  which  fresh  air  is  brought 
to  each  register,  after  being  heated  by  passing  over 
a  coil  of  steam  or  hot  water  pipes,  and  while  it  is 
the  most  satisfactory  of  all  means  of  heating,  the 
expense  of  installation  and  maintenance  is  a  bar  to  its  employment 
for  ordinary  country  or  suburban  house  heating. 


Fig.er.  Pipecon- 

nections.  Hot 

water  Radi- 

ator. 


BUILDING  SUPEKIXTENDENCE 


INSIDE  FINISH. 

After  the  furnace  or  heater  is  set  and  the  plastering  and  concreting 
are  thoroughly  dry,  the  inside  finish  of  the  house  may  be  put  up.  The 
door  frames,  which  should  have  been  all  ready,  will  first  be  set  and 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  these  are  set  square  and  plumb. 
If  a  single  rebated  frame  is  used  (Fig.  69a),  the  superintendent  must 
see  that  it  is  set  with  the  rebate  on  the  proper  side  of  the  partition. 
Our  specifications  call  for  all  inside  door  frames  to  be  double  rebated 
as  at  b,  which  not  only  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  this  precaution, 


\EJfPAMS/ON    TANK 


r/psr  FLOOB 


Fig.  68.    Piping  for  Overhead  Distribution. 

but  has  the  merit  of  allowing  the  doors  to  finish  at  the  same  height 
and  width  on  both  sides  of  the  partition  and  also  allows  of  the  door 
being  hung  on  either  side. 

Architraves.  When  the  door  frames  are  set  the  next  operation 
will  be  to  set  the  door  and  window  architraves,  called  in  some  locali- 
ties door  and  window  "trim",  although  "casing"  is  perhaps  the  more 
common  term.  There  are  two  principal  methods  of  casing  a  door 
or  window;  by  the  block  casing  (Fig.  70a),  or  the  mitred  casing. 


81 


71 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


(6.)  The  block  casing  is  the  simpler  and  less  liable  to  be  disfigured 
by  shrinkage,  as  the  joints  are  all  straight  across  the  casing,  and,  as 
this  will  not  shrink  endways,  the  joints  do  not  open.  The  mitred 
finish  is  neater  in  appearance  but  can  be  used  only  with  thoroughly 
kiln-dried  wood,  as  any  shrinkage  will  cause  the  joint  to  open.  Archi- 


Fig.  69a. 


Door  Fr;i:iirs. 


traves  of  either  kind  are  usually  hollowed  out  on  the  back  as  shown, 
to  allow  each  edge  to  fit  closely  to  the  frame  and  the  plaster,  and 
avoid  danger  of  displacement  by  possible  warping  or  twisting  of  the 
casing  or  ground.  Plain  blocks  to  the  height  of  the  base  are  often 
put  at  the  bottom  of  the  door  casing,  called  plinth  blocks.  (Fig.  71.) 


Fig.  70a. 


Door  Finish. 


Fig.  706. 


The  superintendent  should  watch  to  see  that  all  joints  are  carefully 
done,  that  margins  are  even  on  all  sides,  and  that  the  mouldings  are 
securely  nailed.  The  mouldings  must  be  scraped  or  sand-papered, 
pr  both,  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  milling  or  planing,  the  effect  of 


82 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


which  is  to  leave  marks  upon  the  wood,  and  these  imperfections  will 
appear  more  noticeable  when  varnish  has  been  applied.     No  casings 
should  be  spliced,  although  long  horizontal  mouldings  such  as  bases 
and   wainscot  mouldings  will 
have  to  be  spliced,  and  care 
should  be   taken  to  see  that 
this  is  neatly  done. 

For  painted  work  it  is 
customary  to  nail  the  finish  to 
the  walls  and  frames  with  fin- 
ish  nails,  well  set  for  puttying. 
The  nails  should  be  driven  in 
the  quirks  of  the  mouldings 
as  much  as  it  is  possible.  For 
hardwood  finish  the  members 
should  be  glued  together  at 


PLINTH. 


DOOE. 


Fig.  71.   piintu  Block. 
the  shop  as  far  as  is  possible 

and  no  more  nails  used  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  Wainscoting,  if 
panelled,  should  be  put  together  at  the  shop  in  as  long  lengths  as 
possible,  and  painted  on  the  back  before  setting,  and  angles  and 
corners  should  be  rebated  together.  (Fig.  72.)  The  projection  of  the 
dado  cap  as  well  as  chair  rails  should 
be  studied  in  connection  with  the  arch- 
itraves to  be  sure  that  they  are  coming 
together  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
Where  a  dado  is  used  the  line  of  the 
window  stools  will  sometimes  be  made 
the  top  of  the  cap,  and  in  this  case 
especial  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
window  frames  may  finish  at  the  same 
level.  Where  a  chair  rail  only  is  em- 
ployed it  is  generally  set  about  three 
feet  above  the  floor. 

Bases  and  chair  rails  which  run  be- 
tween doors  and  windows  can  generally  be  obtained  without  splicing. 
Picture  mouldings  if  set  any  distance  below  the  ceiling  will  need 
especial  attention  to  be  sure  .that  they  are  run  level  and  are  securely 
nailed. 


Fig.  72.    Rebated  Corner. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Stairs.  Close  attention  must  be  given  the  stairs  to  secure  a 
satisfactory  result.  In  the  beginning  the  stringers  must  be  examined 
to  see  if  they  correspond  to  the  plans  in  the  number  of  steps,  and  that 
ample  head-room  is  provided  where  one  flight  of  stairs  comes  over 
another.  The  plans  will  show  the  number  but  not  the  height  of  the 
risers,  as  this  can  only  be  determined  by  dividing  the  whole  height 
from  top  to  top  of  floors,  by  the  number  of  risers  shown.  This  should 
have  been  laid  out  to  give  for  ordinary  stairs  a  rise  of  about  seven 
and  one-half  inches,  and  the  sum  of  the  tread  and  rise  together  should 
make  for  an  ordinary  house  staircase  between  seventeen  and  seven- 
teen and  one-half  inches,  so  that 
with  seven  and  one-half  inches 
for  the  rise,  the  tread  should  be 
nine  and  one-half  or  ten  inches. 
Another  rule  is  that  the  product 
of  the  rise  and  tread  should  be 
seventy  to  seventy-five  inches, 
that  is,  if  the  rise  is  six  inches,  the 
tread  should  be  eleven  and  two- 
thirds  to  twelve  and  one-half  in- 
ches. For  stairways  where  the 
space  is  limited  "winders"  may 
bejnserted  (Fig.  73),  but  where  there  is  ample  room,  it  is  well  to 
avoid  them. 

The  question  of  head-room  is  an  important  matter  and  one  that 
is  not  easily  foreseen,  so  that  often  costly  stairways  which  are  otherwise 
well  conceived  are  sometimes  spoiled  by  too  close  head-room.  With 
floors  of  the  thickness  of  ordinary  dwellings  the  well-room  should 
extend  over  at  least  thirteen  risers,  and  where  one  flight  comes  directly 
.over  another,  seven  and  one-half  feet  in  the  clear,  over  the  face  of 
the  riser,  should  be  allowed. 

In  the  construction  of  stairs  methods  differ  somewhat.  In  New 
England  it  is  customary  to  build  the  finished  work  of  the  stairs  upon 
the  rough  stringer,  piece  by  piece.  The  treads  and  risers  are  brought 
from  the  shop  all  fitted  and  are  nailed  into  place,  the  risers  are  first 
put  on,  grooved  at  the  bottom  to  receive  the  tongue  of  the  tread,  and 
the  tread  grooved  on  the  under  side  and  fitted  over  a  tongue  in  the 
riser.  (Fig.  74.)  A  small  moulding  is  then  put  in  the  angle  under 


Fig.  73.    Winding  Stairs. 


84 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


77 


Fig.  74.    Tread  and  Riser. 


the  edge  of  the  tread,  and  this  finish  is  carried  around  the  end  of 
the  step  in  "open  string"  flights,  where  the  tread  appears  at  the  end. 
(Fig.  75.)  The  inside  or  wall  edges  of  both  tread  and  riser  are  grooved 
on  the  line  of  the  base,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  scribed  to  the  outline 
of  the  steps  and  cut  away  on  the  back 
to  form  a  tongue,  which,  after  the  steps 
are  all  in  place,  is  driven  into  the 
grooves,  the  stair  nosing  being  cut 
away.  This  is  necessary  to  prevent 
the  appearance  of  a  crack  along  the 
whole  wall  end  of  the  stairs,  which 
will  invariably  appear  on  account  of 
the  shrinkage  of  the  stairs  and  base, 
but  unless  carefully  watched  it  is  likely 
to  be  omitted,  as  the  fitting  and  tongue- 
ing  of  the  base  is  a  difficult  matter. 
In  the  second  or  "English  Method" 
the  finished  stairs  are  put  together  at  the  shop  and  brought  bodily 
to  the  building  and  fitted  to  the  rough  stringers.  In  this  construction 
the  wall  ends  of  the  steps  are  grooved  into  the  base  or  wall  stringer 

and  wedged  and  glued.  The  outer 
stringer,  if  a  close  or  curb  string 
(Fig.  76),  is  tongued  and  fitted 
into  the  treads  and  risers.  This 
method  of  "housing"  is  also 
sometimes  used  when  the  stairs 
are  built  at  the  building.  One 
objection  is  found  to  the  English 
method  where  the  stairs  are  plas- 
tered underneath,  in  that  there 
is  no  good  chance  to  fit  and  wedge 
the  finished  steps  to  the  rough 

Fig.  75.   open  string.  work,  but  where  the   underside 

of  the  stairs   are  panelled  there 

is  ample  opportunity  to  wedge  the  work  solid,  which  is  necessary  to 
prevent  squeaking,  a  very  disagreeable  thing  in  a  staircase.  In  open 
string  stairs,  before  the  end  nosings  are  put  on,  the  treads  should 
be  dovetailed  at  the  end  for  the  balusters,  and  when  these  are  fitted 


7S 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


in,  the  nosing  will  make  them  secure.  This  should  be  done  in  all 
good  work,  although  the  general  practice  is  to  nail  the  balusters  at 
the  bottom. 

Against  the  sloping  rail  the  balusters  may  be  securely  nailed, 
but  the  rail  must  be  secured  to  the  posts  by  bolts  made  for  the  purpose 

which  are  let  into  the  end  of  the 
rail.  (Fig.  77.)  Where  the  stair 
rail  comes  against  the  wall  it  is 
better  to  put  a  half-post  than  to 
allow  the  rail  to  run  into  a  plate, 
which  will  be  done  unless  the  half- 
post  is  shown  or  specified.  The 
erection  of  the  stairs  should  be 
closely  followed  by  the  ~  superin- 
tendent, as  there  is  a  great  oppor- 
tunity to  slight  their  construction. 
If  put  together  at  the  building,  the 
rough  stringers  should  be  care- 
fully verified  to  see  that  the  treads 
are  level  and  the  risers  all  equal. 
The  cutting  of  these  stringers  is  a  matter  of  great  nicety,  and  mis- 
takes are  often  made  which  the  workmen  will  sometimes  try  to 
remedy  by  tipping  the  stringer  backward,  if  it  is  too  long,  or  forward, 
if  too  short  (A,  Fig.  78),  or  by  reducing  or  adding  to  the  top  and 
bottom  riser  (B).  This  should  be  watched 
for  and  never  allowed,  as  a  slight  differ- 
ence in  the  height  or  level  of  the  steps  is 
a  source  of  danger.  If  the  English  meth- 
od is  used,  especial  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  finished  work  is  securely 
blocked  and  wedged. 

Windows.  As  a  part  of  the  finishing  of  the  inside  of  the  house 
will  come  the  adjustment  of  the  sashes  and  doors.  The  sashes  are 
held  in  place  by  stop  beads,  which  are  strips  of  wood  usually  one-half 
an  inch  in  thickness  and  of  varying  widths,  according  to  the  thickness 
of  the  sashes  and  of  the  walls.  (Fig.  79.)  These  stop  beads  should 
always  be  secured  by  screws,  as  it  will  sometimes  become  necessary 
to  remove  them  to  adjust  or  replace  the  sashes.  Special  screws  are 


Fig.  76.    Closed  String. 


Fig.  77.    Rail  Bolts. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


A 


sold  for  this  purpose,  if  desired,  which  have  a  washer  with  a  horizontal 
slot,  which  will  allow  of  the  slight  adjustment  made  necessary  by  the 
swelling  or  shrinking  of  the  sashes,  by  simply  loosening  the  screws. 
Before  applying  the  stops 
the  sashes  must  be  care- 
fully fitted  and  balanced, 
and  as  they  will  vary  some- 
what in  weight,  the  matter 
of  a  perfect  balance  will 
require  close  attention. 
The  superintendent  should 
see  that  each  sash  is  so 
balanced  that  there  will  be 
no  great  effort  needed  to 
raise  or  lower  it,  and  no 
danger  of  its  banging  by 


B. 


Fig.  78.    Stair  Stringers. 


reason  of  too  much  or  too 

little  weight.  He  should  closely  examine  the  hardware  to  see  that 
it  is  as  specified  and  is  carefully  put  on.  Sash  fasts  are  often  badly 
set  and  each  one  must  be  tried  to  see  that  it  works  properly  and 
easily.  Pulleys  should  be  carefully  inspected  to  see  that  they  are 
as  specified.  These  will  probably  have  been  already  set  in  the  win- 
dow frames  when  they  were  received,  and 
unless  the  contractor  has  paid  especial  at- 
tention to  them  they  are  very  likely  to  be  of 
an  inferior  order. 

The  difference  between  a  plated  bronzed 
face  and  a  solid  bronze  metal  face  is  often 
overlooked,  and  the  bearings  will  be  inferior 
if  not  carefully  examined.  A  steel  axle 
pulley  may  be  used  for  ordinary  work,  but 
for  better  service  a  turned  or  milled  axle  is 
preferable. 

For  hanging  the  sashes,  cords,  chains 
and  metallic  ribbons  are  used,  but  for  the 
ordinary  sizes  of  windows  a  good  braided  cord  is  perhaps  to  be 
preferred,  this  depending  upon  local  custom.  The  size  and  partic- 
ular brand  of  cord  should  be  specified  and  care  taken  to  see  that  this 


Fig.  79.    Stop  Bead. 


87 


80  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

is  furnished.  The  leading  manufacturers  have  adopted  a  copyrighted 
device  of  a  spot  or  name  which  appears  at  short  intervals  upon  their 
cord  and  if  noted  will  prevent  any  other  being  substituted.  For  large 
sashes  with  no  vertical  bar,  such  as  are  shown  in  main  rooms  of 
our  house,  sash  lifts  should  be  used.  These  are  metal  fixtures 
applied  to  the  lower  or  side  rims  of  the  sashes  to  afford  a  hold 
for  the  fingers  when  raising  the  sash.  In  windows  as  wide  as  shown, 
with  no  vertical  bar,  the  usual  habit  of  starting  to  raise  the  sash  by 
lifting  up  on  the  middle  rail  will  result  in  loosening  the  putty  and 
springing  up  the  rail  so  that  lifts  are  necessary.  These  may  be  of 
the  ordinary  hook  shape,  or  may  be  a  metal  slot  let  into  the  lower 
sash.  (Fig.  80.)  Casement  or  swinging  windows  and  transoms  will 
require  special  fittings,  of  which  there  are  a  great 
variety,  each  designed  to  supply  a  special  need. 

The  main  thing  to  be  observed  is  that  the  ap- 
pliances  are  as  simple  as  possible  and  that  the 
moving  parts  are  noiseless  and  well  adjusted. 

Doors  and  Trimmings.  The  last  of  the  in- 
terior fittings  to  be  applied  are  usually  the  doors. 
These  are  of  two  classes,  "stock"  doors  and 
doors  made  to  order.  Stock  doors  are  made  in 


Fig.  so.  sash  Lifts,  certain  regular  sizes,  generally  of  pine,  whitewood 
or  cypress,  and  may  be  obtained  at  all  times,  of 
the  dealers.  Stock  doors  are  made  in  three  grades,  A,  B,  and  C,  of 
which,  doors  of  the  first  quality  may  be  used  for  the  inferior  portions 
of  good  houses,  but  these,  by  reason  of  their  being  stored  for  a  greater 
or  less  time,  are  generally  not  thoroughly  dry  and  will  shrink  and 
twist  when  subjected  to  furnace  heat.  The  second  and  third  quality 
of  stock  doors  are  a  very  inferior  article  and  should  be  used  only  for 
the  poorest  kind  of  work. 

Custom=Made  Doors.  The  doors  of  the  principal  rooms 
should  be  made  to  order.  If  of  pine  or  whitewood  they  may  be  made 
solid  but  must  be  of  kiln-dried  stock  and  kept  perfectly  dry.  The 
tenons  should  be  made,  as  specified,  with  haunches  (Fig.  81)  and  the 
panels  put  in  \vithout  bradding  or  gluing,  so  as  the  allow  them  to 
swell  and  shrink  without  cracking.  Hardwood  doors  are  veneered 
upon  a  core  of  well  seasoned  pine  and  should  be  examined,  upon 
delivery,  to  see  that  this  is  done  and  that  the  veneers  are  of  the  proper 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


81 


HAUNCH 


Fig.  81.    Door  Tenon. 


thickness.     The  veneers  should  be  one-quarter  inch  on  the  face  and 
at  least  three-quarters  inch  on  the  edges,  to  allow  of  fitting.     If  the 
panels  are  of  great  width  they  should  also  be  veneered,  with  the  grain 
of  the  core  running  at  right  angles  to  the 
grain  of  the  veneer.     Doors  which  are  to 
show  hardwood  on  one  side  and  a  painted 
finish  on  the  other  should  be  veneered  on 
both    sides    to    prevent   warping,   which 
may  occur  if  one  side  only  is  veneered. 
In  the  design  and  selection  of  doors  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  panels  are  so  di- 
vided that  the  lock,  in  its  normal  position, 

will  not  cut  off  the  tenon  of  the  rail  but  will  come  opposite  a  panel. 
(Fig.  82.)     The  rails  of  a  door  are  always  tenoned  into  the  outside 
stiles,  and  if  there  is  a  middle  stile  it  is  -tenoned  into  the  rails  (Fig. 
83),  so  that  the  tenon  at  A  is  an  important  factor  in  the  strength  of 
the  door  and  is  often  weakened  or  destroyed  by  being  cut  for  the  lock. 
Hardware  of  Doors.      The  hanging   and 
fitting  of  the  doors  is  a  matter  of  great  nicety 
and  should  be  intrusted  only  to  careful  work- 
men.    The   hardware   for  an   ordinary  door 
will   consist   of  the  hinges,  or  "butts",  the 
lock,  knobs  and  escutcheon  plates."   Double 
doors  will  need  in  addition  bolts  for  the  stand- 
ing part.     Sliding  doors  will   be  hung  on  a 
"hanger",  and  the  fittings  must  necessarily  be 
flush  to  allow  the  door  to  slide  into  the  wall. 
The  specification  of  hardware  for  doors  is 
often  made  a  matter  of  an  allowance,  either 
at  a  certain  price  per  door,  or  a  sum  is  named 
to  cover  all  the  hardware  of  the  doors,  leaving 
the  selection  to  the  architect  or  owner.     The 
latter  method  has  been  employed  in  our  case 
Pig.  83.  Latch  and  Lock.   and   the   architect 's  knowledge  will  become 
necessary  in  guiding  the  owner  to  a  proper 

selection  at  the  dealer's,  rather  than  exercising  an  inspection  of 
hardware  at  the  building.  In  the  selection  of  hinges  the  choice  of 
material  will  be  principally  between  solid  bronze  or  brass,  or  plated, 


82 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


A 


japanned  or  lacquered  iron  or  steel.  If  of  solid  metal  the  best  quality 
only  should  be  used,  with  steel  washers  and  bearings,  as  the  soft  metal 
will  otherwise  wear  out  from  the  swinging  of  the  door.  Modern  door 
hinges  are  invariably  made  in  parts,  to 
allow  of  the  door  being  removed  without 
unscrewing  the  hinge,  and  this  is  ac- 
complished by  two  methods,  the  loose- 
joint  butt  and  the  loose-pin  butt.  The 
former  consists  of  a  hinge  made  in  two 
parts  (Fig.  84),  of  which  the  part  con- 
taining the  pin  is  screwed  to  the  door 
frame  and  the  other  part  to  the  door; 
this  allows  of  the  door  with  its  half  of 
the  hinge  being  lifted  off  if  desired. 
With  the  loose  pin  butt  (Fig.  85)  the 
door  is  removed  by  drawing  out  the  pin 
and  slipping  the  hinges  apart.  Loose 
•  pin  butts  are  becoming  of  more  general 
use  than  formerly  and  possess  some  ad- 
vantages. In  the  first  place,  the  bearing 
surfaces  are  multiplied,  and  the  pin  being 
separate  from  the  leaves  allows  of  its  being  made  of  harder  metal. 
Again,  as  either  leaf  can  be  fastened  to  the  door  or  jamb,  the  same 
hinge  may  be  used  for  a  right-hand  or  a  left-hand  door,  and  the  fact 
that  the  pin  may  be  withdrawn  al- 
lows of  opening  the  door  even  when 
locked.  This  may  sometimes  be  a 
disadvantage  and  should  be  borne 
in  mind  in  using  doors  which  open 
out  of  a  room  which  must  be  made 
secure. 

Locks.  The  variety  of  door 
locks  is  so  great  that  mention  can  be 
made  only  of  some  of  the  distinguish- 
ing features.  According  to  their 
construction,  locks  are  generally 
either  "tumbler  locks"  or  "cylinder 


Fig.  83.    Door  Framing. 


(D 


© 
© 


Fig.  84.    Loose-Joint  Butt. 


locks",  and   according   to   their   position   on   the   door  are   either 


90 


§g 
§1 

to  a 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


<D 


<£> 


<£> 


Fig.  85.    Loose-Pin  Butt. 


"rim  locks"  or  "mortise  locks".  Tumbler  locks  are  the  ordinary 
kind  of  lock  operated  by  a  long  key  (Fig.  86),  and  depend  upon  tum- 
blers or  levers  which  are  raised  by  the  key  to  an  exact  position 
before  the  bolt  can  be  thrown.  Cylinder  locks  consist  of  two  cylin- 
ders, a  small  cylinder  rotating  inside  of 
a  larger  one  and  only  turning  when  a 
key  of  the  proper  shape  and  size  is 
inserted.  (Fig.  87.)  Cylinder  locks 
are  not  so  easy  to  pick  as  tumbler 
locks,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  an 
accidental  exchange  of  keys,  so  that 
they  are  recommended  for  outside 
doors  or  wherever  special  security  is 
desired.  "Rim"  and  "mortise"  locks 
differ  only  in  the  form  of  the  case,  rim 
locks  being  made  to  screw  on  the  face 
of  the  door  (Fig.  88),  and  mortise 
locks  are  let  into  the  edge  of  the  door  (Figs.  86  and  87),  the  inside 
construction  of  both  being  the  same.  For  ordinary  house  use,  a  three 
lever  lock  with  brass  or  bronze  face  is  good  enough,  but  a  cylinder 
lock  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  the  outside  doors.  The  latch 
and  lock  will  generally  be  found  in  combination  and  may  be  used 
with  a  long  plate  covering  both  knob 
and  keyhole,  or  with  a  separate  treat- 
ment of  the  keyhole  by  means  of  an 
"escutcheon".  (Fig.  89.) 

Whatever  treatment  of  escutcheon 
plate  is  adopted,  the  knobs  and  spindle 
will  be  the  same  and  may  be  selected 
of  a  variety  of  materials  and  shapes. 
The  cheapest  knobs  are  of  composition 
and  are  commonly  called  "mineral", 

"jet",  or  "porcelain"  knobs.  Wood  finished  in  natural  color  is  used 
to  some  extent,  and  glass  as  well.  All  of  these  are  sold  with  bronze 
shanks  and  escutcheons.  A  better  class  of  knob,  and  perhaps  the 
most  satisfactory  of  any,  is  the  brass  or  bronze  metal,  either  wrought 
or  cast  arid  finished  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and  with  a  wide  choice 
of  finish. 


Fig.  86.     Tumbler  Lock. 


91 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  87.    Cylinder  Lock. 


Bolts.  Of  greater  protection  than  locks  on  a  door  are  bolts, 
which,  being  operated  from  one  side  only,  are  secure  against  picking. 
The  simplest  and  least  noticeable  of  these  are  the  mortise  bolts 
which  set  into  a  hole  bored  in  the  edge  of  the  door  and  are  operated 

by  a  knob  or  key  on  the  face. 
Chain  bolts  are  a  protection  in  lo- 
calities infested  by  tramps  or  un- 
desirable intruders.  These  con- 
sist of  a  strong  chain  which  is 
secured  to  the  frame,  and  hooks 
into  a  slotted  plate  on  the  door, 
allowing  the  door  to  open  only  to 
the  length  of  the  chain,  which  can- 
not be  dislodged  except  by  again 
closing  the  door.  (Fig.  90.) 

Miscellaneous.       The  many 

small  fittings  such  as  coat  hooks,  drawer  handles,  cupboard  latches 
and  the  like,  should  be  selected  for  strength  and  utility  rather  than 
for  effect,  and  are  the  most  satisfactory  in  plain  bronze  metal  or 
brass,  and  can  be  obtained  of  good  manufacture  and  materials  at 
moderate  prices. 

Inspection.  The  inspection  of  hardware  is  an  important  mat- 
ter, whether  it  is  furnished  by  the  owner  or  the  builder,  as  any  changes 
made  after  fixtures  are  once  applied  are 
sure  to  produce  defects  of  some  kind. 
What  purports  to  be  bronze  may  be  some 
baser  metal  skillfully  bronzed  or  lac- 
quered on  the  face.  This  may  be  detected 
by  scraping  the  back  with  a  knife  or  file. 
The  faces  of  locks  or  bolts  may  be  plated 
instead  of  being  solid.  Knobs  may  be 
poorly  secured  to  the  shank,  and  may 
lack  proper  washers  to  prevent  rattling,  and  hinges  may  be  fur- 
nished with  no  washers  and  will  soon  wear  and  creak.  In  the 
application  of  hardware  also  it  is  necessary  to  keep  a  sharp  watch. 
Even  in  so  simple  a  matter  as  putting  on  door  hinges  there  is  a 
right  and  a  wrong  way,  for  if  the  butts  are  not  directly  over  each 
other,  the  door  when  opened  will  either  swing  back  or  forward. 


Fig.  88.    Rim  Lock. 


92 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


sr, 


Mortises  must  be  accurately  cut  so  that  the  locks  will  neither  be 
loose  nor  be  so  tight  that  they  cannot  be  removed  if  required.  Roses 
or  escutcheon  plates  must  be  put  exactly  opposite  each  other  or  else 
the  spindle  will  bind  in  the  lock.  Knobs  must  be  carefully  adjusted 
by  means  of  washers  so  that  they  will  not 
slip  back  and  forth.  Striking  plates  for 
latches  (Fig.  91)  must  be  carefully  cen- 
tered and  adjusted.  While  all  hardware 
is  usually  packed  with  screws  finished  to 
match,  the  screws  are  often  too  small  and 
their  efficiency  destroyed  by  being  driven 
in  with  a  hammer  by  careless  workmen. 
This  should  never  be  allowed,  but  every 
screw  should  be  set  with  a  screwdriver. 


Good  sized  screws  are  especially  impor-   Fig.  89.  Plate  and  Escutcheon. 
tant  in  door  hinges,  and  the  hinges  them- 
selves must  be  of  ample  size  to  allow  the  door  to  swing  entirely  back. 
The  greatest  vigilance  is  necessary  to  insure   from  defects  of  selec- 
tion or  application,  and  nothing  will  reflect  more  credit  upon  the 
superintendent  than  a  good  job  of  hardware. 

Floors.  When  the  inside  finish  has  been  put  up,  the  rough 
under  floors  should  be  gone  over  and  all  holes  and  broken  boards 
repaired  and  the  floors  cleaned  off,  ready  to  receive  the  finished  floors. 
The  laying  of  these,  if  they  are  of  hardwood,  is  sometimes  let  out  to  a 
regular  floor-layer,  but  in  general  this  is 
done  by  the  carpenter.  For  the  carpeted 
rooms  a  good  quality  of  spruce  flooring 
not  over  four  inches  wide  will  be  used  laid 
with  square-edged  boards.  If  possible,  the 
boards  should  be  laid  in  one  length,  and  if 
this  cannot  be  done,  the  joints  should  be 
broken  as  often  as  possible.  With  boards  of  the  same  width  they  can 
be  broken  every  course,  but  when  the  boards  are  of  unequal  width 
there  will  be  a  straight  joint  through  three  or  four  boards.  The 
nails  of  a  square-edged  floor  are  driven  through  the  face  of  the 
board  and  sunk  with  a  nail-set,  to  be  puttied  or  not,  according  to 
whether  the  floor  is  finished  or  left  bare,  and  a  line  should  be 
drawn  where  nails  are  to  be  driven,  over  the  center  of  the  joist  below. 


Fig.  90.    Chain  Bolt. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Floor  Paper.  Between  the  upper  and  under  floors  it  is  well  to 
lay  a  deafening  of  paper.  This  may  be  an  asbestos  felt,  which  is 
valuable  on  account  of  its  fire  resisting  qualities,  or  a  common  floor 
paper  may  be  used,  and  should  be  put  down  in  two  thicknesses. 

Matching.  Where  finished  hardwood  floors  are  used,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  the  floor  boards  matched  so  that  the  nails  may 
be  concealed.  Blind  nailing,  this  is  called,  and  by  this 
method  the  board  will  be  nailed  only  on  one  edge,  and 
the  matching  depended  upon  to  hold  down  the  other  edge 
of  the  board.  For  this  reason  the  floor  should  be  laid  of 
narrow  strips  each  with  a  tongue  and  groove,  the  grooved 
edge  being  forced  over  the  tongue  of  the  preceding  strip 
and  the  tongue  in  turn  nailed  diagonally.  (Fig.  92.) 
The  under  floors,  where  a  nice,  handsome  upper  floor  is 
desired,  should  be  in  narrow  widths  not  over  four  inches 
wide,  for  each  board  in  shrinking  will  compress  as  many 
strips  of  the  upper  floor  as  may  be  upon  it,  together, 
leaving  a  wide  crack  over  the  crack  in  under  floor.  This 
defect  may  be  overcome  by  laying  the  under  floor  diagonally  or  at 
right  angles  to  the  upper  floor. 

Stock.  Of  flooring  stock  in  general,  quartered  oak  makes  the 
best  floor  for  appearance  and  wearing  quality,  but  birch  and  maple 
are  used  to  a  great  extent,  and  rift  hard  pine  will  make  a  good  floor 
for  ordinary  use.  Quartered  oak  is  sawn  from  the  trees  as  nearly 
as  is  possible  on  radial  lines 

(Fig.  93),  and   shows   an  T  y5  7j  jk 

even,  straight  grain  with       ~/      "J       /  [  /  T/~ 

irregular  streaks,   upon  a  Fig.  93.   Blind-Nailing, 

ground  of  fine  parallel  lines. 

In  rift  hard  pine  the- parallel  grain  is  more  pronounced  and  of  a 
coarse  growth.  All  flooring  must  be  kiln-dried  and  laid  hot  from 
the  kiln,  or  as  soon  as  possible  after  delivery.  To  obtain  a  perfectly 
even  surface  the  floor  must  be  "traversed",  that  is,  planed  across 
the  grain  so  as  to  bring  the  floor  to  a  perfectly  level  surface.  A 
thin  floor  which  is  only  T5g-inch  thick  is  used  to  good  advantage 
over  an  under  floor  which  is  in  good  condition.  This  floor  is  skill- 
fully handled  by  a  professional  floor-layer,  and  is  often  laid  to  a  more 
or  less  fancy  pattern.  Being  too  thin  to  match,  these  floors  are  nailed 


94 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  87 

through  and  the  nail  holes  are  so  cleverly  puttied  up  as  to  be  almost 
invisible.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  artificial  heat  in  the  building 
while  the  floors  and  finish  are  being  put  up,  which  should  be  main- 
tained until  occupancy.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  the  case  of 
parquetry  flodrs. 

Miscellaneous.  A  number  of  different  points  connected  with 
the  finishing  of  the  house  will  now  arise,  and  the  superintendent  will 
do  well  to  inspect  the  work  constantly  to  see  that  every  visible  detail 
is  completed  as  it  should  be.  Thresholds  should  be  carefully  fitted, 
cornices,  chair-rails,  and  picture-mouldings  run  level  and  true. 
Sashes  must  be  tried  to  be  sure  that  they  are  accurately  balanced  and 
hung.  Every  sash-fast,  lock  and  knob  must  be  examined  and  all 
drawers,  slides  and  other  movable  fixtures 
tested  and  left  in  good  working  order. 

PAINTING. 

Exterior  Painting.  The  outside  fin- 
ish of  the  house  should  have  received  as 
soon  as  put  up  the  first  or  priming  coat 
of  paint,  this  is  usually  done  more  or  less 
by  piecemeal  as  the  different  parts  of  the 
house  are  completed,  and  will  require  at-  Flg<  93  Quarter  sawing, 
tention  mainly  to  see  that  the  materials  are 

pure  and  that  the  surfaces  are  well  covered.  This  first  coat  should 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  white  lead,  which  will  adhere  to 
the  new  wood  far  better  than  any  other  substance  and  will  retain 
the  second  coat  well.  Pure  linseed  oil  should  be  used,  but  unless 
care  is  taken  this  is  likely  to  be  adulterated  with  fish  oil  which  dries 
slowly  and  never  hardens  like  pure  oil.  The  only  way  to  detect  the 
presence  of  fish  oil  is  by  its  fishy  smell  and  this  is  sometimes  hard 
to  observe.  Linseed  oil  is  also  adulterated  with  oils  of  resin  and  pine, 
and  these  are  very  hard  to  detect,  except  by  long  experience. 

Puttying.  After  the  application  of  the  priming  coat,  all  the 
nail  holes  and  cracks  must  be  stopped  with  putty,  the  nails  having 
previously  been  "set"  by  the  carpenter  when  the  finish  was  put  up. 

The  final  painting  of  the  exterior  will  naturally  begin  with  the 
roof  and  be  carried  downward  so  that  portions  already  done  will 
not  be  spattered  by  subsequent  operations.  If  the  roof  shingles 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


are  to  be  painted  or  stained  they  should  have  been  dipped  in  the 
paint  or  stain  for  a  distance  of  at  least  two-thirds  from  the  butt, 
before  being  laid.  This  is  a  tedious  process  but  is  well  worth  the 
extra  trouble  and  expense.  Another  method  is  to  paint  each  course 
of  shingles  as  it  is  laid,  but  this  is  fully  as  objectionable  a  process 
as  dipping.  In  either  case  the  coloring  of  the  roof  shingles  will  have 
become  hard  by  the  time  the  walls  are  painted  so  that  there  will  be 
no  staining  of  the  work  below. 

Colors.  In  the  choice  of  a  color  for  the  exterior  a  few  general 
suggestions  may  properly  be  made  here.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  of 
prime  importance  that  the  house  should  harmonize  in  its  exterior 
colors  with  the  surroundings.  If  the  house  is  to  be  surrounded  by 
plenty  of  growth,  such  as  trees  or  shrubs  so  that  the  tints  of  vegeta- 
tion will  predominate,  the  tendency  may  well  be  toward  shades  of 
green,  yellow,  or  brown,  which  will  harmonize  with  the  changing 
effects  of  the  growth.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  situation  is  one 
where  rocks  and  ledges  will  necessarily  lend  a  grayish  tone  to  the 
surroundings,  the  house  may  well  be  painted  in  shades  of  gray. 

Colonial  Colors.  For  a  colonial  design,  such  as  we  have 
adopted,  the  old-fashioned  idea  of  painting  the  trimmings  white  and 
the  body  color  of  yellow  ochre  or  gray,  may  be  properly  considered. 
Of  these  the  gray  body  will  prove  more  lasting  as  the  yellow  ochre 
often  becomes  subject  to  mildew  when  exposed  to  continued  damp- 
ness. In  general,  light  colors  last  better  than  dark  colors  and  do  not 
"draw"  the  joints  of  the  finish. 

Exterior  Stains.  For  shingled  houses,  stains  of  various  colors 
and  ingredients  are  often  used.  These  are  not  so  durable  as  paint, 
but  have  the  merit  of  preserving  the  texture  of  the  shingles,  which  is 
completely  lost  by  the  application  of  paint.  Creosote  stains,  pine  tar 
stains  and  oil  stains  may  be  obtained.  Of  these  the  creosote  stain 
acts  as  a  preservative  for  the  wood,  especially  if  the  shingles  are 
dipped  before  laying.  In  the  lasting  qualities  of  these  stains  there 
is  little  choice,  creosote  and  tar  both  disappear  in  time  through  the 
action  of  sun  and  rain,  while  the  tendency  of  oil  stain  is  to  blacken 
or  mildew. 

In  some  situations  a  preference  may  be  had  for  an  unpainted 
exterior,  the  desired  effect  being  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  ele- 
ments. In  this  case  shingles  should  be  used  for  the  covering,  as 


06 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


clapboards  or  siding  are  liable  to  split  if  not  protected  with  paint.  In 
any  case  the  exterior  finish  and  mouldings  should  be  painted  or  they 
will  warp  and  twist  out  of  place. 

Priming.  Before  priming  the  painted  finish,  all  knots,  sap  and 
strong  discolorations  must  be  "killed"  with  a  strong  coat  of  shellac 
to  prevent  any  staining,  which  will  occur  unless  this  is  done.  The 
painter  must  be  required  to  examine  the  finish  and  report  any  defects, 
which  must  be  remedied  by  the  carpenter,  and  all  finish  should  be 
gone  over  with'  sand-paper  before  each  coat.  As  to  color  of  the  prim- 
ing coat,  white  or  almost  any  very  light  color  will  do,  and  it  is  often 
well  to  include  in  the  contract  simply  this  and  another  finishing  coat, 
as  the  work  will  be  better  done  with  less  opportunity  to  cover  up  poor 
work  and  less  liability  of  blistering  than  if  three  or  four  coats  are 
applied  at  once,  and  a  third  coat  may  be  applied  after  two  or  three 
seasons  to  better  advantage.  An  exception  should  be  made  in  regard 
to  sashes,  which  should  have  three  or  four  coats  at  once.  While  it 
is  essential  that  the  first  coat  should  be  of  lead  and  oil,  for  the  sub- 
sequent finish  it  is  not  so  important.  Some  of  the  patent  mixed  or 
"chemical"  paints  are  convenient  and  will  last  well,  especially  away 
from  the  sea-coasts.  Paint  should  be  applied  by  long  strokes  parallel 
to  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  no  portion  of  work  should  be  started 
in  the  morning  which  cannot  be  finished,  or  carried  to  some  definite 
stopping  place  before  night,  as  the  joining  of  work  done  at  different 
times  will  always  show  a  bad  place.  The  back  of  lattice  should  be 
painted  and  all  conductors  and  metal  finish  and  roofs.  Canvas 
roofs  are  best  treated  by  dampening  and  giving  a  good  coat  of  oil 
with  yellow  ochre,  then  two  or  three  coats  of  lead  and  oil  paint. 

In  regard  to  exterior  painting,  the  use  of  turpentine  is  to  be 
avoided,  as  turpentine  does  not  resist  the  action  of  water  and  so 
will  not  preserve  work  which  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  As  oil 
possesses  a  natural  tendency  to  discolor  white  paint,  it  is  customary 
to  mix  turpentine  with  the  oil  when  an  absolute  white  is  desired,  but 
in  dark  colors  this  is  not  necessary,  and  boiled  oil  only  should  be  used 
unless  a  dryer  is  needed. 

Inside  Painting.  While  the  same  principles  apply  to  the  inside 
painting  as  to  the  outside,  more  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  appli- 
cation. Puttying  must  be  done  with  the  greatest  of  care,  and  a 
greater  skill  in  the  application  will  be  needed.  If  a  painted  finish  is 


97 


90  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

desired  greater  care  must  be  taken  in  protecting  from  knots  and  pitch 
by  the  use  of  shellac,  even  to  the  extent  of  shellacing  the  whole  finish 
if  it  is  necessary.  For  inside  painting  zinc  is  used  to  a  large  extent, 
instead  of  lead,  and  is  often  preferred  as  it  has  no  tendency  to  turn 
yellow  in  rooms  which  are  not  well  lighted,  as  lead  will  sometimes 
do.  Tastes  vary  as  to  the  kind  of  surface  desirable  for  painted 
finish.  If  a  dull  finish  is  desired  it  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  the 
last  coat  of  paint  with  clear  spirits  of  turpentine  instead  of  oil.  Oil 
gives  a  somewhat  glossy  finish  and  if  a  high  gloss  is  desired  varnish 
may  be  mixed  with  the  last  coat.  The  so-called  enamel  finish  is 
very  popular  and  is  obtained  by  the  application  of  five  or  six  coats  of 
paint,  each  coat  rubbed  down  with  pumice  and  oil,  the  last  coat  being 
of  a  prepared  enamel. 

Inside  Staining.  Staining  in  various  tints  is  a  popular  way  of 
finishing  many  interiors.  This  is  done  sometimes  to  change  the 
natural  color  of  oak  or  other  hard  woods,  and  more  often  to  give  a 
desired  tone  to  softer  woods  such  as  whitewood  or  cypress. 

Stains  are  in  general  of  three  kinds,  water  stains,  oil  stains 
and  spirit  stains.  The  richest  color  effects  are  produced  by  water 
stains,  for  the  reason  that  their  work  is  performed  by  absorption 
and  there  is  thus  less  tendency  to  obscure  the  grain  of  the  wood. 
Oil  stains  are  superior  to  water  stains  in  the  matter  of  preserving  the 
wood  and,  by  reason  of  not  freezing,  their  use  in  cold  weather  is  an 
advantage,  but  the  result  is  a  loss  in  clearness  of  grain  and  color 
effects.  For  renewal  of  old  work  oil  stains  should  be  used,  as  the  pre- 
vious finishing  will  prevent  proper  absorption  of  the  water  stain. 
Spirit  stains  tend  to  strike  into  the  wood  by  evaporation,  requiring 
about  twice  as  much  to  cover  the  same  area  as  water  or  oil  stains, 
and  they  are  not  so  extensively  used. 

Varnish  and  Shellac.  Where  a  natural  finish  is  desired  the 
treatment  will  vary  from  the  simple  application  of  a  coat  or  two  of 
oil,  which  makes  the  cheapest  and  poorest  finish,  to  five  or  six  coats 
of  shellac,  rubbed  down,  which  gives  the  most  costly  and  best  of  all 
finishes.  The  actual  treatment  will  vary  with  the  wood  and  finish 
desired.  We  find  that  our  painting  specification  has  been  very 
carefully  drawn,  giving  the  hardwood  finish  after  cleaning,  first  a 
coat  of  oil  or  paste  filler,  this  is  cleaned  off  and  four  coats  of  shellac 
applied,  each  coat  when  dry  being  rubbed  down  with  fine  sand-paper 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  91 

except  the  last.  This  coat  will  be  rubbed  to  an  egg-shell  gloss  with 
pumice  stone  in  oil.  The  hard  pine  finish  of  the  service  portions  of 
the  house  will  be  given  a  good  coat  of  oil  to  bring  out  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  This  will  be  smoothed  by  sandpapering  and  then  given  a 
good  coat  of  spar  varnish  rubbed  down,  and  a  final  coat  of  the  same, 
this  last  coat  flowed  on  and  left  shining. 

Preparation.  For  a  first-class  finish  certain  conditions  must 
be  observed,  first  in  importance  being  to  have  a  smooth  and  clean 
surface  upon  which  to  work.  This  can  best  be  assured  by  a  careful 
sandpapering  of  all  finish  until  perfectly  smooth,  when  all  traces  of 
dust  should  be  removed.  If  stain  is  to  be  used  it  may  then  be  applied 
arid,  after  drying,  sand-paper  lightly  to  bring  up  the  high  lights  and 
smooth  the  grain  which  will  be  raised  somewhat  by  the  application 
of  the  stain.  A  second  coat  of  very  dilute  stain  lightly  applied  with 
a  cloth  will  often  improve  the  grain.  This  may  be  followed  by  a 
very  light  coat  of  shellac  to  protect  the  solid  parts  of  the  wood  from 
absorbing  too  much  of  the  filler,  thus  improving  the  contrasts  and 
preventing  a  muddy  appearance  that  is  sometimes  seen. 

Filling  and  Finishing.  The  wood  is  now  ready  to  receive  the 
filler  which  should  be  used  on  open  grained  woods  such  as  oak,  ash, 
chestnut,  mahogany,  etc.  Either  a  paste  filler  or  an  oil  filler  may  be 
used,  preference  generally  being  for  the  former.  This  is  applied  in 
a  thick  coat,  the  surplus  being  wiped  off  with  a  cloth,  and  the  whole 
sand-papered  lightly. 

After  filling,  another  coat  of  shellac  may  be  put  on  and  sand- 
papered, and  this  may  be  followed  by  two  or  three  coats  of  varnish 
or  shellac  according  to  the  finish  desired. 

Shellac  and  Varnish.  The  choice  of  shellac  or  varnish  for 
finishing  will  depend  upon  the  use,  condition,  or  situation  of  the  work 
to  be  finished. 

In.  conditions  of  dampness 'or  where  the  finish  will  be  subjected 
to  the  action  of  water  to  any  extent,  it  will  be  better  to  use  varnish, 
as  the  effect  of  water  is  to  turn  shellac  white.  Varnish,  when  thor- 
oughly dry,  is  not  affected  by  ordinary  applications  of  water.  For 
this  reason,  if  there  is  any  suspicion  that  the  finish  is  not  thoroughly 
dry,  it  will  be  safer  to  use  varnish  in  direct  contact  with  the  wood  as 
the  final  seasoning  of  some  of  the  more  "sappy"  woods,  such  as 


92  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

cypress  or  hard  pine,  will  sometimes  produce  enough  moisture  to 
whiten'the  shellac,  even  under  subsequent  coats  of  varnish. 

In  kitchens,  pantries,  bathrooms  and  in  general  the  whole  serv- 
ice portion  of  a  house,  it  will  be  better  to  use  varnish,  as  the  appli- 
cation of  water  will  be  more  general  in  these  parts  than  in  the  main 
rooms. 

Rubbing  Down.  The  rubbing  down  of  shellac  or  varnish  is  a 
protection  against  whitening,  and  for  this  reason,  besides  the  gain  in 
appearance,  every  coat,  especially  in  finishing  in  shellac,  should  be 
rubbed  down.  This  rubbing  down  may  be  done  with  fine  sand-paper, 
or  hair-cloth  or  curled  hair,  and  the  last  coat  may  be  treated  in  various 
ways  according  to  the  finish  desired.  To  obtain  an  egg-shell  gloss 
for  the  final  surface  the  last  coat  should  be  rubbed  with  pulverized 
pumice  stone  and  raw  linseed  oil.  For  a  dull  finish  water  may  be 
used  instead  of  oil  with  the  pumice,  and  for  a  highly  polished  surface, 
a  rubbing  with  pumice  and"  water  may  be  followed  by  polishing  with 
"rotten  stone"  and  water.  Work  that  is  to  be  polished  should  never 
have  less  than  three  varnish  coats,  but  an  egg-shell  gloss  may  be 
obtained  with  two  coats. 

Floor  Finish.  To  obtain  permanent  wearing  qualities  in  the 
finishing  of  floors  is  a  troublesome  matter.  The  elastic  varnish 
which  we  have  used  for  the  standing  finish  requires  a  different  treat- 
ment when  subjected  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  floors.  Referring  to  the 
specifications,  we  find  that  the  floors  are  to  be  stained  as  approved, 
and  the  oak,  which  is  an  open  grained  wood,  is  to  receive  a  coat  of 
oil  filler,  this  brings  out  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  it  is  then  ready 
to  receive  three  or  four  coats  of  shellac  each  sand-papered  as  before 
and  the  last  coat  rubbed  with  pumice  stone  in  oil  or  water  to  a  dull 
finish. 

For  floors  of  maple,  birch  or  any  close  grained  wood  the  oil 
filler  would  be  of  no  use  and  its  place  would  be  taken  by  extra  coats 
of  shellac.  For  hard  pine  floors  of  the  kitchen,  back  halls  and  bath- 
room, which  are  subjected  to  a  great  deal  of  use  and  more  or  less 
water,  satisfactory  finish  may  be  obtained  by  giving  simply  two 
coats  of  oil  with  turpentine  dryer  added  to  prevent  the  dust  from 
sticking  as  it  would  to  clear  oil.  A  finish  less  expensive  than  the 
shellaced  finish  for  hardwood  floors  is  obtained  by  use  of  wax  polish 
which  is  applied  to  the  wood  after  filling  or  better,  over  one  or  two 


100 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  93 

coats  of  shellac.  This  is  a  paste  which  enters  the  pores  of  the  wood, 
dries  in  a  few  hours,  and  can  then  be  polished  with  cloths  or  by  drag- 
ging weighted  brushes,  which  are  sold  for  the  purpose,  to  and  fro 
over  the  floor.  By  keeping  a  brush  and  the  wax  at  hand,  any  worn 
spots  on  the  floor  can  be  easily  renewed  and  the  whole  kept  looking 
well  indefinitely. 

A  first-class  job  of  finishing  should  never  be  hurried,  but  each 
coat  should  be  thoroughly  dry.  Varnish  should  be  applied  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  70°  F.  and  this  temperature  should  be  maintained 
until  the  varnish  is  thoroughly  dry.  Clean  brushes  should  be  used  at 
all  times,  and  a  rising  of  dust  in  a  room  should  be  wet  down  and 
checked  until  the  varnished  work  is  completely  dry. 

Miscellaneous.  Beside  the  -standing  finish  and  floors,  miscel- 
laneous parts  must  receive  the  painter's  attention.  Pulley  stiles 
of  windows  must  be  oiled,  sashes  drawn,  exposed  brass  piping  shel- 
laced, and  thresholds  oiled  or  varnished.  All  of  these  minor  details 
will  need  the  attention  of  the  superintendent  or  they  will  be  over- 
looked. Other  than  this,  the  supervision  of  the  painting  work  will 
be  mainly  to  see  that  the  best  of  materials  are  used.  To  this  end  it 
will  be  necessary  to  insist  that  all  paints  shall  be  mixed  at  the  build- 
ing, and  that  all  materials  are  of  the  specified  kind  and  are  brought 
to  the  building  in  the  original  cases  or  kegs. 

Tinting.  It  will  generally  be  found  necessary  that  the  ceilings 
and  walls  which  are  not  covered  with  paper  or  hangings,  shall  be 
tinted  or  frescoed.  This  is  a  matter  which  needs  to  be  done  by  care- 
ful workmen  who  understand  the  preparation  and  application  of  the 
colors.  Much  depends  upon  the  first  or  sizing  coat  and  this  should 
always  be  applied  before  tinting  or  fresco  of  any  kind  is  done. 

Glazing.  It  is  usually  the  custom  to  send  the  sashes  to  the 
building  all  glazed,  so  that  the  superintendent  needs  only  to  see  that 
the  glass  is  of  the  specified  quality  and  whole.  Common  window 
glass  is  called  sheet  or  cylinder  glass,  and  is  rated  as  double  or  single 
thick,  and  as  first,  second  or  third  quality.  Formerly  all  glass  was 
imported  from  France  or  Germany,  but  American  glass  has  come  to 
be  used  in  general  in  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  Eastern  States  window  glass  is  still  imported  and  it  is 
customary  in  the  East  to  specify  German  glass  for  the  best  work. 
For  lights  up  to  twenty-four  inches  in  width,  single-thick  glass  may 


101 


94  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


be  used,  this  is  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  while 
double-thick  glass  is  about  one-eighth  inch. 

The  best  quality  of  common  American  glass  is  known  as  AA,  the 
second  as  A,  and  the  third  as  B.  Sheet  glass  is  made  by  blowing 
the  molten  glass  in  a  cylinder  about  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  This 
is  trimmed  and  cut  longitudinally  and  heated  until  it  can  be  opened 
out  flat.  Sheet  glass  always  retains  a  vestige  of  its  curvature. 

Between  first  and  second  quality  glass  it  will  be  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish except  by  practice,  but  defects  or  unevenness  may  be  seen 
at  once,  and  plate  glass  is  always  readily  distinguished,  by  reason  of 
its  polish  and  its  absolute  freedom  from  imperfections  of  any  kind. 

Plate  Glass.  For  lights  more  than  five  feet  square  plate  glass 
must  be  used.  This  may  be  obtained  in  three  grades,  French  plate 
and  two  grades  of  American  plate.  French  plate,  and  the  first  or 
silvering  quality  of  American  plate,  are  used  almost  entirely  for  mir- 
rors, while  the  second  quality  of  American  plate  is  used  for  glazing. 

American  glazing  plate  is  made  in  one  quality  only,  and  is  usually 
one-quarter  inch  thick  for  ordinary  sizes,  but  is  necessarily  thicker 
for  large  lights,  and  may  be  obtained  in  sheets  as  large  as  twelve  by 
seventeen  feet.  Plate  glass  is  absolutely  straight,  being  cast  on  a 
perfectly  flat  cast  iron  table  and  rolled  to  the  required  thickness. 
The  rough  plate  thus  formed  is  carefully  examined  for  flaws  which 
are  cut  out,  leaving  as  large  a  sheet  as  possible  which  is  polished. 
French  plate  may  be  distinguished  from  American  plate  by  the  color, 
when  looked  at  endways.  The. French  glass  shows  perfectly  clear 
and  white,  while  the  American  glass  has  a  bluish  color. 

Crystal  Plate.  A  kind  of  plate  glass  called  crystal  plate  is 
made,  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  is  used 
for  railway  cars  and  in  places  where  thin  sashes  must  be  used  or  a 
saving  in  weight  is  desirable.  * 

Final  Inspection.  With  the  departure  of  the  painter  the  house 
is  usually  complete,  and  ready  for  the  architect's  final  inspection  and 
acceptance.  This  inspection  should  be  careful  and  thorough  from 
top  to  bottom,  and  no  certificate  of  acceptance  should  be  issued,  until 
the  architect  is  satisfied  that  everything  has  been  done  which  is  actu- 
ally called  for  or  reasonably  implied  by  the  plans  and  specifications. 


102 


m 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PAKT  II. 


CITY  BUILDINGS. 

The  requirements  of  city  buildings,  which  are  for  the  main 
part  similar  to  the  practices  which  we  have  already  considered,  are, 
nevertheless,  in  many  essentials,  distinct.  In  the  first  place,  the 
circumstances  of  situation,  soil  and  surroundings  differ  from  sub- 
urban or  rural  conditions.  Instead  of  being  able  to  establish  our 
building  to  meet  our  individual  tastes,  we  shall  find  that  the  side- 
walk and  yard  levels  are  already  established,  and  the  level  of  the 
cellars  or  basements  will  be  found  to  be  restricted  in  some  localities. 
The  lines  of  our  building  will  also  be  determined,  in  a  great  measure, 
by  established  lines  and  restrictions  so  that  much  more  of  prelimi- 
nary work  will  be  needed  to  make  the  most  of  the  existing  condi- 
tions with  which  we  find  ourselves  confronted. 

Party  Walls.  Of  great  importance  in  laying  out  our  build- 
ing will  be  the  existing  agreements  in  regard  to  party  walls.  In 
most  cases  it  will  be  found  that  there  has  been  signed  an  agreement 
relating  to  the  construction  and  use  of  party  walls.  The  usual 
arrangement  is  that  the  party  who  first  builds,  shall  build  and  pay 
for  the  wall,  which  is  erected  one-half  on  each  side  of  the  party  line, 
and  that  the  adjoining  owner  shall  have  the  right  to  use  and  acquire 
the  half  of  wall  which  stands  upon  his  side  of  the  line,  by  paying 
to  the  party  who  has  already  built,  the  cost  of  one-half  of  the  wall 
as  already  erected. 

As  buildings  of  different  heights  require  walls  of  varying  thick- 
ness, it  is  usual  to  agree  that  no  wall  shall  be  primarily  erected  which 
extends  more  than  six  inches  beyond  the  party  line,  so  that  if  one 
owner  desires  to  erect  a  building  which  will  require  a  greater  thick- 
ness than  one  foot  for  the  party  wall,  he  must  erect  all  except  six 
inches  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  upon  his  own  land.  While  a 
party  wall  agreement  will  probably  be  a  matter  of  record,  which 


105 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  94.    Finish  at  Party  Wall. 


can  be  looked  up  in  the  proper  place,  much  time  may  often  be  saved 
by  looking  for  some  information  upon  the  spot. 

If  the  land  on  either  side  of  our  lot  be  already  occupied  by  a 
building,  the  conditions  of  the  wall  finish  will  be  likely  to  afford  data 
upon  which  we  can  work.  If  the  finished 
brick  or  stonework  covers  apparently  only 
one-half  of  the  wall,  leaving  a  surface  of 
rough  brick  set  back  from  the  face  or 
"ashlar  line,"  Fig.  94,  it  will  indicate  that 
the  wall  is  a  party  wall,  as  it  is  the  usual 
practice  for  each  owner  to  stop  his  front 
at  the  party  line.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  find  the  finished  work  covering  the 
wall  completely,  Fig.  95,  we  may  assume 
that  the  wall  in  question  is  not  a 
party  wall,  but  a  wall  built  wholly 
upon  the  land  of  the  adjoining  owner. 
This  evidence  will  be  confirmed  if,  upon 
measuring  the  distance  between  the  two 
lines  in  question,  we  find  it  to  agree  with  the  figures  upon  the  sur- 
veyor's plan  with  which  we  must  be  provided  before  laying  out 
our  plans.  The  matter  of  party  wall 
rights  is,  however,  too  important 
to  be  settled  to  a  sufficient  degree, 
by  mere  observation,  to  permit  of 
building  operations,  and  so  we  shall 
need  to  apply  to  our  client  for  a 
copy  of  any  agreements  or  restric-  j|_ 
tions,  and  proceed  to  plan  and  con-  £ 
struct  the  new  buildings  in  accord- 
ance with  these.  .^STOWE: 

Soil.  If  the  nature  of  the  soil  ^l 
upon  which  we  are  to  build  is  not  -*, 
known,  we  must  have  borings  made  Fig- 
to  show  the  composition  of  the 
soil  at  different  levels.  If  two  borings  on  opposite  sides  show  about 
the  same  character,  it  will  be  sufficient  evidence,  but  if  these  vary, 
then  borings  should  be  made  all  around.  Rock,  clay  or  gravel 


Finish  of  Wall  not  a  Party 
Wall. 


106 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  97 


bottom  will  require  only  that  our  foundations  shall  be  made  wide 
enough  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  building,  and  its  contents, 
over  an  area  sufficient  to  sustain  it.  The  bearing  power  of  rock 
will  vary  from  ten  to  thirty  tons  per  square  foot,  dry  clay  from  four 
to  six  tons,  gravel  from  eight  to  ten  tons.  If,  however,  the  soil  con- 
sists of  mud  or  filled  land,  such  as  will  be  found  on  the  borders  of 
lake  or  ocean,  it  will  be  necessary  to  drive  piles,  upon  which  the 
footings  are  supported. 

Pile  Foundations.  Piles  are  made  of  wood,  cast  iron,  con- 
crete, or  steel,  but  for  ordinary  building  they  are  usually  made  from 
the  trunks  of  trees,  and  should  be  straight  and  sound,  and  at  least  eight 
inches  in  diameter  for  heavy  buildings.  Spruce,  hemlock,  Georgia 
pine,  and  oak  are  the  principal  kinds  of  wood  in  use  for  piles.  The 
usual  method  of  driving  piles  is  by  repeated  blows  given  by  a  block 
of  iron  called  the  hammer,  which  works  up  and  down  between  the 
uprights  of  a  machine  called  a  pile-driver.  This  hammer  weighs 
from  1,200  to  2,500  pounds,  and  the  fall  varies  from  five  to  fifteen  feet. 
Piles  should  be  driven  plumb,  and  any  pile  which  has  been  driven  for 
twenty  feet  or  more,  and  refuses  to  sink  more  than  half  an  inch  under 
five  blows  of  a  1,200  pound-hammer  falling  fifteen  feet,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  at  its  depth.  Several  formula  have  been  proposed  for 
figuring  the  safe  load  upon  piles,  of  which  one  of  the  latest,  known 
as  the  Engineering  News  formula,  is: 

2WH 

Safe  load  in  pounds  =  Q 

o  ~t~  1 

in  which  W  =  weight  of  hammer  in  pounds,  H  =  its  fall  in  feet,  and 
S  —  the  average  set  under  the  last  blows  in  inches. 

Piles  should  be  spaced  not  less  than  two  feet,  nor  more  than 
three  feet,  on  centers,  and  they  must  be  cut  off  below  low-water  mark. 
The  level  at  which  piles  are  to  be  cut  off  will  be  given  by  the  building 
laws  of  most  large  cities,  and  is  established  at  a  level  which  will 
insure  of  the  pile  being  at  all  times  under  water.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  piling  will  be  subject  to  no  decay,  but  alternate  conditions 
of  moisture  and  dryness  will  soon  result  in  the  rotting  of  the  piles. 

The  superintendence  of  piling  will  consist  first  in  an  examination 
of  the  piles  as  they  are  delivered,  to  see  that  they  are  of  the  requisite 
length  and  diameter,  sound  and  straight.  The  lines  of  the  building 
must  be  carefully  established,  and  small  stakes  driven  to  fix  the 


107 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


position  of  every  pile.  This  should  be  verified  by  the  superintendent 
according  to  the  piling  plan  furnished.  When  the  actual  driving 
of  the  piles  begins  there  should  be  kept  a  complete  record  giving  the 
length  of  pile,  the  number  of  blows,  and  the  distance  which  the  pile 
has  sunk  at  each  of  the  last  (ten)  blows.  From  this  data  the  bearing 
capacity  of  the  pile  may  be  computed  by  the  foregoing  rule.  Another 
formula  is  known  as  Saunder's  rule  and  is  as  follows: 
FH 

£jE  —  w 

8  S~  W' 

in  which  F  =  fall  of  hammer  in  inches,  S  =  sinking  oe  pile  at  last 
blow,  in  inches,  H  =  weight  of  hammer  in  pounds,  vV  =  safe  load 
for  pile  in  pounds. 

Besides  this  record,  the  pile  should  be  carefully  watched  while 
being  driven,  to  see  that  it  does  not  get  out  of  line,  that  the  head 
does  not  "broom"  or  split  excessively.  If  there  is  danger  of  this, 
the  head  of  the  pile  should  be  bound  with  a  wrought-iron  strap  or 
a  cast-iron  cap.  When  the  piles  have  been  driven,  trenches  wide 
enough  to  accommodate  the  stone  levelers  must  be  excavated  and 
kept  free  from  water  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  allow  of  sawing  off  the 
piles  at  the  required  level.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  a  cross- 
cut saw  operated  by  two  men,  and  the  tops  must  be  cut  off  at  a  level 
with  each  other.  Piles  exposed  to  tide-water  are  usually  driven 
with  the  bark  on. 

Footing  Stones  and  Concrete.  Whether  the  bearing  be 
piles  or  the  natural  earth,  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  will  usually 
consist  of  large  stones  or  of  concrete.  If  three  rows  of  piles  are 

used  they  may  be  covered  as 
shown  in  Fig.  96.  Two  rows  of 
piles  are  generally  capped  by  a 
series  of  levelers  laid  across  the 
trench  as  in  Fig.  97.  A  footing 
on  earth  will  be  laid  in  a  like 
manner,  and  of  a  width  made 
necessary  by  the  load  to  be  borne 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  purposes  of  these  wide  footings  are 
to  spread  the  weight  over  a  large  area  and  also  to  add  stability  to 
the  wall,  and  they  may  be  of  stone,  brick,  or  concrete.  For  nearly 
all  buildings  on  solid  ground,  concrete  footings  are  probably  the 


Fig.  96.    Capping  of  three  Rows  of  Piles. 


108 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  97.    Capping  of  two  Rows  of  Piles. 


best,  and  in   many  cases   concrete   capping  for  piles   may  be  used 
to  advantage. 

Trenches  for  the  footing  may  be  dug  below  the  regular  excava- 
tion and  of  the  exact  width  required,  and  into  this  the  concrete  may 
be  tamped  (Fig.  98).  A  good 
proportion  is  one  part  of  cement, 
two  parts  of  sand,  and  four  parts 
of  stone,  for  natural  cement.  The 
thickness  of  the  footing  should  be 
one-quarter  of  its  width  (provided 
this  does  not  figure  less  than  twelve  inches)  put  in  by  layers  about  six 
inches  each.  If  this  concrete  is  much  wider  than  the  wall  over  it,  a 
stone  leveler  may  be  placed  on  the 
top,  as  shown  in  Fig.  98  A. 

If  preferred,  stone  footings  of  a 
similar  character  may  be  used,  as  in 
Fig.  99,  and  for  light  buildings  where 
stone  is  hard  to  obtain,  brick  footings 
may  be  used.  If  this  is  done,  the 
offsets  should  never  be  more  than  one- 
quarter  of  a  brick,  and  the  outside 
work  should  be  all  headers,  with  a 
double  course  at  the  bottom.  (Fig. 
100.)  This  course  should  be  laid  in  a  bed  of  mortar  spread  on  the 
bottom  of  the  trench,  of  hard 
burnt  bricks,  thoroughly  wet  if  the 
weather  is  dry.  Too  much  care 
can  never  be  taken  to  insure  a  good 
foundation.  If  important  footings 
are  made  of  concrete,  an  inspector 
should  be  on  the  work  during 
working  hours,  to  see  that  the 
concrete  is  mixed  in  proper  por- 
tions, and  put  in  to  the  full  thick- 
ness shown,  and  tamped  and  lev- 
eled every  six  inches.  The  trenches  must  be  kept  free  from  water 
until  the  cement  has  set,  or  it  will  become  utterly  worthless,  by  rea- 
son of  the  water  separating  the  cement  from  the  sand.  If  the 


Fig.  98.    Concrete  Leveler. 


Fig.  99.    Stone  Footing. 


109 


100  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


footing  is  of  stone,  the  presence  of  water,  if  only  a  few  inches 
deep,  will  do  no  harm,  but  the  footing  then  must  be  bedded  in  firm 
sand  or  gravel  instead  of  cement. 

Foundation  Walls.  The  foundation  walls  of  a  city  building 
above  the  footing  course,  are  usually  built  of  stone.  Concrete  is 
used  to  some  extent,  and  brick  will  be  used 
for  the  party  wall  where  there  is  to  be  a 
cellar  both  sides.  For  heavy  walls  of  build- 
ings, three  or  more  stories  in  height,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  use  block  stone.  These 
are  stones  roughly  fashioned  to  dimension 
and  generally  laying  from  eighteen  inches  to 
>ting'  two  feet  in  height  and  the  full  width  of  the 
wall.  (Fig.  101.)  Being  brought  nearly  even  and  square,  not 
much  mortar  will  be  used,  and  this  should  be  of  clear  cement  and 
sand  below  the  grade  line. 

Rubble    Walls.     For  a  foundation  of  a  lighter  character,  rubble 
stone  may  be  used.     This  consists  of  stone  split  from  a  ledge  with 
no  preparation  other  than  breaking  up  with  a  stone   hammer,  and 
squaring  one  edge  and  face.     As 
these    stones     are    irregular    in 
shape  and   thickness,  considera- 
ble  mortar  will  have  to  be  used 
and  the  character  of  the  mortar 
and  the  filling  of  voids  will  need 
especial  attention.     An  important 
element  in  the  strength  of  a  rub- 
ble wall,  is  the    bonding  or  the 
lapping  of  stones  over  each  other. 
The    stones   should    be    laid    in 

irregular  courses  leveled  off  to  a  Fig' 101'   Block  stone  waiL 

horizontal  joint  about  every  two  feet,  and  a  bond  stone  should  be 
put  in  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  feet.  Most  city  laws  require  a 
certain  proportion  of  bond  stones,  and,  if  nothing  is  said,  a  through 
bond  stone  should  be  inserted  into  every  five  or  six  square  feet. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  stones  are  bonded  also  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  wall,  so  that  no  vertical  joints  may  appeal- 
running  through  three  or  four  courses.  Outside  of  the  bonding, 


110 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  101 

the  manner  of  laying  the  stones  must  have  our  attention.  All  the 
stones  must  be  laid  as  nearly  as  possible  on  their  natural  bed, 
that  is,  with  their  splitting  surface  horizontal.  Angles  and  corners 
must  be  carefully  laid  with  large  stones  bonding  across  each  way, 
as  in  Fig.  102. 

With  a  heavy  foundation  wall  of  block  stones,  where  each  stone 
is  of  the  full  thickness  of  the  wall,  the  main  care  will  be  to  obtain  a 
good  bond,  with  level  and  plumb  joints.  Openings  for  pipes  should 


Fig.  103.    Bonding  of  Corner. 

be  left  when  the  wall  is  being  built,  as  it  may  be  difficult  to  break 
an  opening  after  the  walls  are  carried  up. 

Derrick  Stones.  All  of  the  stones  which  are  suitable  for  the 
heavy  walls  which  we  have  described  should  be  large,  and  will 
require  the  use  of  derricks  in  handling.  If  the  building  is  to  be  one 
of  great  size  or  height,  a  system  of  three  or  four  large  derricks  will 
probably  have  been  started,  swinging  from  some  central  scaffold, 
and  guyed  to  this  and  to  each  other.  For  a  building  of  but  three  or 
four  stories  however,  the  builder  would  probably  use  a  series  of 
smaller  derricks  supported  each  by  its  own  guy  ropes.  The  super- 
intendent should  make  sure  that  the  ropes  are  strong  and  not  frayed 
out,  that  the  mast  and  boom  are  neither  cracked  nor  sprung,  and 
that  the  running  gear  is  strong  and  shipshape.  The  securing  of  the 
guy  ropes  is  a  very  important  matter,  and  should  be  noted  by  the 
superintendent.  Although  it  belongs  to  the  contractor  to  do  this,  a 


111 


102 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


careful  inspection  by  the  architect  will  doubly  insure  the  safety  of  all 
concerned.  In  suburban  or  out-of-town  work  the  guys  will  usually 
be  secured  to  a  convenient  tree,  and  this  should  be  a  young  or  evidently 
sound  tree,  or  if  posts  have  to  be  put  down,  as  will  be  necessary  in  the 
city,  they  should  be  set  deep  in  the  ground  with  the  earth  well  tamped 
in  again.  The  guys  must  be  at  all  times  drawn  taut,  as  a  loose  guy 
will  be  given  a  sudden  and  dangerous  strain  if  a  heavy  stone  is  swung 
around  so  as  to  bring  its  weight  upon  it. 

The  derrick  will  allow  of  heavy  stones  being  carefully  set,  and 
this  will  be  especially  noted  in  the  handling  of  the  capstones  for 
the  piles.  These  will  have  been  selected  for 
an  even  bed  and  can  be  shifted  until  they 
rest  immovable  on  the  piles.  In  bedding,  the 
heavy  stones  may  be  held  suspended  over 
the  place  where  they  are  to  lie  while  an 
even  bed  is  being  prepared,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, the  stone  may  be  lowered  and  then 
raised  again  before  the  final  setting,  so  that 
the  impression  will  show  where  the  bed 
will  need  fitting. 

Thickness  of  Walls.  The  thickness 
of  foundation  walls  in  all  large  cities  is 
controlled  by  law,  and  in  general  will  re- 
quire that  walls  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet  below  the  ground  shall  be  four  inches 
thicker  than  the  wall  above,  for  brick,  and 
eight  inches  for  stone,  with  an  increase  of 
four  inches  for  every  ten  feet  below  this.  In  clay,  which  is  more 
seriously  affected  by  frost  than  gravel,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  build 
foundations  with  a  batter  on  the  outside  of  six  to  twelve  inches,  as  in 
Fig.  103,  so  that  any  movement  of  the  earth  will  readily  free  itself  from 
the  wall,  which  should  be  made  smooth  on  the  outside  with  cement. 
Areas  and  Vaults.  Areas  are  often  required,  to  give  light 
or  access  to  basements,  and  these  will  need  a  retaining  wall  to  keep 
back  the  earth.  Stone  should  be  used  for  areas  of  any  size,  and,  in 
excavating,  the  bank  should  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible  and 
refilled  carefully.  If  the  area  is  not  more  than  six  or  seven  feet  deep, 
a  good  wall  of  a  uniform  thickness  of  twenty  inches  will  be  sufficient 


Fig.  103.    Wall  with  Batter. 


112 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  103 

but,  if  deeper,  the  wall  should  be  made  wider  at  the  bottom  and  bat- 
tered. If  the  wall  is  more  than  ten  feet  long,  cross  walls  or  arches 
should  be  built  to  connect  with  the  main  building.  The  bottom  of  the 
area  should  be  carried  at  least  six  inches  below  the  sill  of  window  or 
door,  and  covered  with  stone  flagging  or  brick  laid  in  cement,  with 
a  small  brick  cesspool  and  cover,  connected  with  the  main  drain. 

The  space  under  the  sidewalks  and  entrance  steps  or  porches 
is  often  utilized  for  coal  or  general  storage  purposes.  This  requires 
a  wall  at  the  street  line  which  shall  be  heavy  enough  to  sustain  the 
pressure  of  the  street  and  the  weight  of  the  sidewalk.  If  it  is  possible 
to  divide  this  space  so  that  the  partition  walls  can  be  run  back  to 
the  main  building  about  every  ten  feet,  the  construction  can  be  sim- 
plified, but  if  an  open  space  is  required,  a  very  heavy  wall  must  be 
built  at  the  street  line,  and  steel 
beams  laid  from  this  wall  to  the 
building  which  will  buttress  the 
top  of  the  street  wall  and  support 

the  weight  of  the  sidewalk  as  well.     [•;•.  •'• -fl. '.:/.•  .-.•  '  .•  •'-.•  <$;>••'• 
Brick  arches  may  be  turned  be- 
tween these    beams   and   leveled  ^  ~ 

„  .  .          „  Fig.  104.    Sidewalk  Beams. 

up  tor  the  sidewalk,  or  a  concrete 

or  flagstone  sidewalk  may  be  constructed  over  them.  (Fig.  104.) 
If  brick  arches  are  turned,  to  be  covered  with  an  ordinary  brick 
paving,  the  top  of  the  arch  should  be  coated  with  hot  asphalt.  Any  of 
the  modern  forms  of  fireproof  floor  construction  may  be  used  for  the 
sidewalk  covering,  finished  with  concrete  or  "granolithic"  surface. 

Dampness.  As  a  protection  against  dampness,  the  outside  of 
all  cellar  and  vault  walls  in  wet  situations,  should  be  coated  with 
hot  asphalt  or  Portland  , cement.  Asphalt,  applied  while  boiling 
hot  in  two  or  more  coats  from  top  to  bottom,  is  considered  the  most 
lasting,  if  the  ground  is  very  damp,  as  Portland  cement  is  affected 
by  frost  and  is  easily  cracked  by  settlement  of  the  walls,  while  asphalt, 
having  considerable  elasticity,  remains  sound  and  tight.  Coal  tar  is 
sometimes  used,  but  will  gradually  become  brittle  and  crumble  away. 

BRICKWORK  AND  CUT  STONE. 

In  the  superstructure  of  a  city  building  of  ordinary  height, 
say  up  to  five  or  six  stories,  and  excepting  the  so-called  skeleton 


104  BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


construction,  we  shall  usually  find  that  brickwork  forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  wall.  The  face  is  often  finished  with  stone,  either  rough 
or  cut,  but  the  backing,  and  often  the  face  as  well,  will  usually  be 
constructed  of  some  form  of  brickwork,  so  that  bricks  of  some  kind 
or  another  are  probably  more  extensively  used  in  the  construction 
of  city  buildings  than  any  other  material. 

The  advantages  of  bricks  over  stone  are  that  they  are  practi- 
cally indestructible,  either  from  the  action  of  fire  or  the  elements; 
they  are  less  expensive  and  more  easily  handled.  Good  building 
bricks  of  their  respective  kinds  should  be  sound  and  free  from 
flaws  and  stones  or  lumps  of  lime,  uniform  in  size,  and  square,  hard 
and  not  too  absorbent.  A  good  hard  brick  will  ring  distinctly  when 
struck  by  another  brick  or  by  a  trowel,  and  it  should  not  absorb 
more  than  ten  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  water.  In  selecting  bricks 
from  a  quantity  delivered,  the  hard  and  usually  darker  bricks  should 
be  culled  for  use  on  the  outside  of  the  walls,  while  the  lighter  bricks 
should  be  used  for  backing  and  the  inside  courses. 

Thickness  of  Walls.  No  practical  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  the  thickness  of  brick  walls,  as  their  crushing  strength,  which 
is  usually  the  only  direct  strain  applied,  is  generally,  except  in  the  case 
of  small  piers,  a  minor  consideration.  In  all  large  cities  the  least 
thickness  of  walls  will  be  fixed  by  law,  walls  of  mercantile  buildings 
being  heavier  than  those  used  for  living  purposes;  and  in  no  case 
is  it  advisable  that  party  walls  should  be  less  than  twelve  inches 
thick.  Exterior  walls  in  general,  for  a  building  of  five  stories,  should 
not  be  less  than  twenty  inches  in  the  lower  story  and  twelve 
inches  in  the  upper  story.  These  dimensions  applying  to  stories 
of  ordinary  height,  and  spans  of  not  more  than  twenty-five  feet, 
nor  more  than  twenty-five  feet  of  length  without  a  pier.  Walls 
which  contain  thirty-three  per  cent  of  openings  should  also  be 
made  thicker. 

Brick  Laying.  To  perform  the  operation  of  erecting  a  brick 
building  it  is  necessary  to  lay  the  carefully  chosen  bricks  upon  each 
other,  with  a  bed  of  some  kind  of  mortar  between.  Ordinary  brick- 
work is  laid  in  common. white  lime  mortar,  but  for  greater  strength 
and  durability  there  is  often  added  a  proportion  of  cement,  and  for 
brickwork  below  ground,  cement  mortar  only  should  be  used.  The 
thickness  of  the  joints  will  vary  from  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  to 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  105 


three-eighths  of  an  inch,  according  to  whether  the  joint  is  to  be  con- 
cealed or  made  a  feature  of  the  work. 

The  laying  of  the  bricks  should  be  carefully  watched,  as  there 
is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  many  masons  to  slight  this  work.  "Bricks 
should  not  be  merely  laid,  but  every  one  should  be  rubbed  and 
pressed  down  in  such  a  manner  as  to  force  the  mortar  into  the  pores 
of  the  bricks,  and  produce  the  maximum  adhesion;  with  quick- 
setting  cement  this  is  still  more  important  than  with  lime  mortar. 
For  the  best  work  it  is  specified  that  the  brick  shall  be  laid  with  a 
'shove-joint,'  that  is,  that  the  brick  shall  first  be  laid  so  as  to  project 
over  the  one  below,  and  be  pressed  into  the  mortar,  and  then  be 
shoved  into  its  final  position.  Bricks  should  be  laid  in  full  beds  of 
mortar,  filling  end  and  side  joints  in  one  operation.  This  operation 
is  simple  and  easy  with  skillful  masons,  if  they  will  do  it,  but  it  requires 
persistence  to  get  it  accomplished.  Masons  have  a  habit  of  laying 
bricks  in  a  bed  of  mortar,  leaving  the  vertical  joints  to  take  care  of 
themselves,  throwing  a  little  mortar  over  the  top  beds  and  giving  a 
sweep  with  the  trowel  which  more  or  less  disguises  the  open  joint 
below.  They  also  have  a  way  after  mortar  has  been  sufficiently 
applied  to  the  top  bed  of  brick,  to  draw  the  point  of  their  trowel 
through  it,  making  an  open  channel  with  only  a  sharp  ridge  of  mor- 
tar on  each  side  (and  generally  throwing  some  of  it  overboard),  so 
that  if  the  succeeding  brick  is  taken  up,  it  will  show  a  clear  hollow, 
free  from  mortar,  through  the  bed.  This  enables  them  to  bed  the 
next  brick  with  more  facility,  and  avoid  pressure  upon  it  to  obtain 
the  requisite  thickness  of  joint.  Neglect  in  wetting  the  brick  before 
use  is  the  cause  of  many  of  the  failures  of  brickwork.  Bricks  have 
a  great  avidity  for  water,  and  if  the  mortar  is  stiff  and  the  bricks 
dry,  they  will  absorb  the  water  so  rapidly  that  the  mortar  will  not 
set  properly,  and  will  crumble  in  the  fingers  when  dry. 

"Mortar  is  sometimes  made  so  thin  that  the  brick  will  not 
absorb  all  the  water.  This  practice  is  objectionable;  it  interferes 
with  the  setting  of  the  mortar,  and  particularly  with  the  adhesion 
of  the  mortar  to  the  brick.  Watery  mortar  also  contracts  exces- 
sively in  drying  (if  it  ever  does  dry),  which  causes  undue  settlement 
and,  possibly,  cracks  or  distortion.  The  bricks  should  not  be  wetted 
to  the  point  of  saturation,  or  they  will  be  incapable  of  absorbing 
any  of  the  moisture  from  the  mortar,  and  the  adhesion  between  the 


115 


106  BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 

brick  and  mortar  will  be  weak.  The  common  method  of  wetting 
brick  by  throwing  water  from  buckets  or  spraying  with  a  hose  over 
a  large  pile  is  deceptive,  the  water  reaches  a  few  bricks  on  one  or 
more  sides  and  escapes  many.  Immersion  of  the  brick  for  from  three 
to  eight  minutes,  depending  upon  its  quality,  is  the  only  sure  method 
to  avert  the  evil  consequences  of  using  dry  or  partially  wetted  brick. 
Strict  attention  must  be  paid  to  have  the  starting  course  level,  for 
the  bricks  being  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  the  slightest  irregu- 
larity or  incorrectness  in  it  will  be  carried  into  the  superposed  courses, 
and  can  only  be  rectified  by  using  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  mor- 
tar in  one  part  or  another,  a  course  which  is  injurious  to  the  work. 
A  common  but  improper  method  of  building  thick  brick  walls  is  to 
lay  up  the  outer  stretcher  courses  between  the  header  courses,  and 
then  to  throw  mortar  into  the  trough  thus  formed,  making  it  semi- 
fluid by  the  addition  of  a  large  dose  of  water,  then  throwing  in  the 
brickbats  (sand  and  rubbish  are  often  substituted  for  bricks), 
allowing  them  to  find  their  own  bearing;  when  the  trough  is  filled, 
it  is  plastered  over  with  stiff  mortar,  and  the  header  course  laid 
and  the  operation  repeated.  This  practice  may  have  some  advan- 
tage in  celerity  in  executing  work,  but  none  in  strength  or  security." 

A  modification  of  this  practice,  where  the  bricks  are  laid  dry 
and  grouted  with  moderately  thin  mortar  in  every  course,  may  be 
successfully  used  in  weather  when  there  is  no  danger  of  freezing, 
and  will  make  solid  work.  This  is  especially  so  for  footings  and 
foundations  of  brick  where  it  is  necessary  that  every  joint  shall  be 
filled,  as  the  thin  grouting  is  more  to  be  depended  upon  to  fill  every 
joint  than  the  average  mason. 

Joints.  For  inside  walls  which  are  to  be  plastered  or  other- 
wise concealed,  the  joints  may  be  simply  cut  off  flush  with  the  trowel, 
but  where  the  walls  are  exposed,  the  joints  should  be  "struck." 
(Fig.  105.)  This  consists  in  pressing  or  striking  back  with  the 
trowel,  the  upper  portion  of  the  joint  while  the  mortar  is  soft,  so  as 
to  form  a  sloping  surface  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  "Keyed 
joints"  are  formed  by  running  an  iron  jointer  with  round  or  V-shaped 
edge  along  the  center  of  the  flush  joint,  giving  it  a  depression  and 
hardening  the  mortar  by  the  pressure.  (Fig.  106.)  Ruled  joints 
are  made  by  holding  a  straight-edge  under  the  joint  and  running 
the  jointer  along,  making  a  perfectly  straight  joint, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


107 


Bonding.  The  strength  of  a  brick  wall  depends  not  only  upon 
the  bricks,  the  mortar,  and  the  workmanship,  but  the  assembling 
of  the  different  members,  the  bond  or  arrangement  adopted  for 
j  tying  together  the  separate  parts,  and  also 

for  distributing  the  effects  of  concentrated 
loading.  The  common  bonding  consists  of 
laying  every  fifth  or  sixth  course  of  bricks 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  wall, 
as  in  Fig.  107.  These  courses  are  called 
header  courses  and  serve  to  tie  the  wall 
together.  Where  the  wall  is  faced  with 
pressed  brick  and  the  regular  occurrence 
°f  header  courses  would  not  look  well,  the 

backmg  by   clipping 


rig.  105 

Struck  Joint.    face 

off  the  back  corners  c  ?  the  face  bricks,  and  inserting  a  course  of  diag- 
onal headers.  (Fig  108.)  Galvanized  steel  ties  of  patented  manu- 
facture are  extensively  used  in  the  East  and  are  effective  for  this 
purpose.  English  bond  is  a  bonding  much  used  in  England  and 
consists  of  alternate  courses  of  headers  and  stretchers,  as  in  Fig.  109. 


Fig.  107.    Common  Bonding  of  Brick. 

Flemish  bond,  Fig.  110,  consists  of  alternate  headers  and  stretchers 
in  each  course.  This  bond  is  sometimes  used  effectively  in  facings 
of  common  brick,  by  using  blackened  headers,  and  it  is  sometimes 
used  for  every  fifth  course  of  face  work  instead  of  the  diagonal  headers. 
The  bonding  of  angles  is  an  important  matter,  and,  in  addition  to 
the  regular  bond,  most  of  the  city  laws  require  that  the  corners  shall 
be  tied  with  iron  straps  or  bolts.  In  joining  new  work  to  old,  how- 


117 


108 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


ever,  direct  bonding  should  be  avoided  for  fear  of  unequal  settlement, 
and  some  such  method  as  shown  in  Fig.  Ill  should  be  adopted. 

Hollow   Walls.     To  overcome  the  tendency  of  a  solid  brick 
wall  to  transmit  heat,  cold,  or  dampness,  hollow  walls  are  often 


Fig.  108.    Diagonal  Bond.    (Plan.) 

used.  A  given  number  of  bricks,  if  built  as  a  hollow  wall,  will  make 
a  more  stable  wall  than  a  solid  wall  built  from  the  same  number; 
besides  the  gain  of  the  air  space.  Nearly  all  building  laws  require 


JL-JL 


J — L 


-ii~ irnnrnrni   ir~i!    11    n  ^ 


Fig.  109.    English  Bond. 


J^^JLA^-O. 


JLJL  „  IL 


JM—JL 


J=LJLJL 


JLJL-  _    Jl    il  II     ^ 


JU^JilL 


It   II  ..    „  II   H 


Fig.  110.    Flemish  Bond. 


JB. 


the  same  amount  of  brickwork,  independently  of  the  air  space,  in 
hollow  walls,  as  is  required  in  solid  walls,  so  that  there  is  a  loss  of 
space  which  must  be  considered  in  city  building. 


118 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


109 


An  important  consideration  is  the  bonding  of  the  two  portions 
of  a  hollow  wall  so  that  each  shall  help  sustain  the  other.  The 
usual  method  has  been  to  do  this  by  means  of  withes  or  headers  of 
brick  extending  across  the  air 
space,  as  in  Fig.  112,  but  these 
permit  the  moisture  to  pass  from 
the  outer  to  the  inner  shell,  and 
also  allow  the  mortar  dropped 
from  the  higher  portions  of  the 
wall  to  collect  and  partially  fill 
the  space:  a  more  effective 

Fig.  111.    Joint  of  New  and  Old  Work. 

method  of  bonding  is  by  means 

of  a  metal  tie,  either  of  steel  wire  or  of  iron,  and  these  should 
be  made  with  a  dip  in  the  center 
to  allow  any  moisture  which  may 
come  from  the  outer  wall  to  drop  off 
and  not  communicate  with  the  inner 
wall.  (Fig.  113.)  These  ties  should 
be  either  galvanized  or  dipped  in  hot 
asphalt.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide 
for  a  circulation  of  air  through  the 
space  between  the  walls,  by  leaving 
openings  in  the  basement  and  in 
Fig.  112.  Hollow  wall.  the  attic  where  possible.  Hollow 

bricks  are  sometimes  used  for  the  inside  course  of  exterior  walls, 

but,  while    they    are    par- 
tially effective  in  excluding 

moisture,  they  do   not   fill 

the  place  of  a  hollow  wall. 
Common  Bricks.    We 

have  made  free  mention  of 

' '  common    bricks/ '    "face 

bricks/'  etc.     Let  us  pause 

to   consider    just    what   is 

meant  by  the  terms.     Com- 

mon    bricks   include   all  Fig.  113.  Metal  wan  Ties. 

rough  unpressed  bricks  which  have   had    no   special  care  taken  in 

their  manufacture.     These,  according  to  their  position  in  the  kiln, 


119 


110  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

become  burned  to  varying  degrees  of  hardness.  "Arch  brick"  are 
those  which,  from  being  near  fire,  become  burned  to  a  great  degree  of 
hardness  and  are  often  warped,  vitreous,  brittle,  and  weak.  "Red 
bricks  "  are  those  which  are  burned  with  an  even  and  moderate  temper- 
ature and  compose  the  bulk  of  the  kiln.  Salmon,  or  soft  bricks  are 
those  which  are  found  at  the  top  of  the  kiln  and  are  usually  under- 
burnt.  They  are  good  only  for  inside  courses  and  for  lining  chimneys. 
Face  bricks,  in  which  general  term  are  included  pressed  bricks, 
moulded  bricks,  etc.,  are  made  or  re-pressed  in  a  dry  press  machine. 
Face  bricks  are  more  expensive  to  use  than  common  bricks  and  are 
generally  used  for  facing  exterior  walls,  for  fireplaces,  and  for  moulded 
work.  "Enameled  bricks"  are  bricks  whose  face  is  covered  with  a 
coat  of  enamel  of  selected  color.  The  true  enameled  brick  is  a  very 
expensive  article,  so  that  most  of  the  bricks  called  by  this  name  are 
glazed  bricks,  the  difference  being  that  the  true  enamel  is  fused  into 
the  clay  and  is  opaque  in  itself,  while  the  glaze  is  formed  by  coating 
the  surface  with  a  colored  film  and  covering  this  with  the  transparent 
glazing.  This  film  is  apparent  on  chipping  off  the  glazing,  while 
the  true  enamel  shows  no  line  between  the  body  of  the  brick  and 
the  surface. 

Both  glazed  and  enameled  bricks  are  impervious  to  moisture 
and  are  excellent  for  the  facing  of  halls,  courts,  or  wherever  a  light, 
clean  and  waterproof  surface  is  desired.  In  addition  to  these,  special 
bricks  are  made  for  special  purposes,  as  fire  bricks  for  furnace  linings, 
etc.,  which  are  open-grained  or  porous  to  admit  of  a  rapid  loss  of 
heat,  and  paving  bricks  which  are  burned  to  vitrification  to  with- 
stand the  wear  of  travel  and  the  action  of  frost. 

Sizes.  The  sizes  of  bricks  vary  with  the  maker  and  with  local 
customs.  Common  bricks  in  New  England  average  about  2|  X  3f  X 
7f  inches;  in  the  Western  States  about  2-|  X  4£  X  8$  inches.  Face 
bricks  are  more  uniform  in  size  and  average  about  2f  X  4|  X  8f 
inches.  Pressed  bricks  are  also  made  in  a  thinner  pattern  1^  X  4  X  12 
inches.  This  style  is  known  as  the  Roman  brick. 

Freezing  of  Brickwork.  To  obtain  a  satisfactory  result, 
bricks  should  never  be  laid  in  freezing  weather.  If  the  temperature 
is  much  below  40°  F.  during  the  day,  so  that  it  is  likely  to  freeze 
during  the  night,  salt  may  be  mixed  with  the  mortar  and  the  top  of 
the  wall  well  covered  with  boards  and  straw,  and  if  the  upper  courses 


120 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


111 


are  found  to  have  been  frozen  over  night  they  must  be  taken  down 
and  re-laid,  as  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  will  materially 
damage  the  strength  of  lime  mortar  and  will  entirely  ruin  mortar 
made  of  natural  cement  of  the  Rosendale  type.  "Mortar  made  of 
one  part  of  Portland  cement  and  three  parts  of  sand  is  entirely  unin- 
jured by  freezing  and  thawing."  If  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
brickwork  should  be  laid  in  freezing  weather  with  natural  cement 
mortar,  it  may  be  done  by  mixing  the  mortar  "with  water  to  which 
salt  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  salt  to  eighteen 
gallons  of  water,  when  the  temperature  is  at  32°  F.  and,  for  each 
degree  of  temperature  below  32°,  add  three  additional  ounces  of 
salt.  Mortar  mixed  with  such  a  solution  does  not  freeze  in  ordinary 
winter  weather,  and  hence  is  not  injured  by  frost."  In  addition 
to  this,  the  bricks  should  be  warmed  to  remove  any  ice  or  frost. 

These  methods  may  be  used  in  emergencies,  but  the  laying  of 
bricks  in  freezing  weather  is  not  to  be  recommended,  if  it  can  be 
avoided. 

Arches.  In  the  erection  of  brick  walls,  especial  care  should 
be  given  to  the  construction  of  arches  which  will  be  necessary  +o 


Fig.  Hi    Rowlock  Arch. 


Fig.  115.    Gauged  Arch. 


span  the  openings.  Arches,  in  general,  should  be  laid  in  cement 
mortar.  The  two  principal  forms  of  arch  in  brickwork  are  the 
rowlock  arch,  where  the  bricks  are  laid  in  concentric  rings  of  headers, 
Fig.  114,  and  the  gauged  arch,  where  the  bricks  are  cut  and  bonded 
on  radial  lines,  as  in  Fig.  115.  For  arches  of  large  spans  the  bricks 
are  often  laid  in  rings  of  stretchers,  Fig.  116,  and,  if  the  span  is  very 
large,  these  may  be  strengthened  by  bonding  in  headers  as  in  Fig. 
117.  An  important  point  in  the  use  of  arches  is  to  see  that  each 
abutment  contains  sufficient  masonry  to  support  the  thrust  of  the 
arch;  tie  rods  should  be  freely  used  in  case  of  any  doubt,  and  arches 
of  large  span  should  be  sprung  from  stone  skewbacks  carefully  cut 
to  radial  lines,  as  in  Fig.  118. 


121 


112 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


flortar.  All  mason-work  below  ground  should  be  laid  in 
cement  mortar,  and  all  arches  or  heavily  loaded  piers  as  well.  In 
many  city  laws,  the  use  of  cement  mortar  is  required  to  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  height  of  wall.  Cement  mortar  of  some  kind 
should  be  used  for  setting  cornice  stones  and  wherever  the  work 
is  especially  exposed.  For  all  work  under  water,  for  large  arches 


Fig.  116.    Arch  of  Stretchers. 


Fig.  117.    Bonded  Stretchers  in  Arch. 


and  for  tops  of  chimneys,  Portland  cement  should  be  used,  and 
Portland  cement  may  be  mixed  with  Rosendale  to  make  a  strong, 
quick-setting  mortar.  Portland  cement  and  lime  may  be  mixed 
to  give  a  strong  light -colored  mortar  which  is  much  used  in  England 
for  face-brick  work. 

Sand.  The  proportion  of  sand  used  in  mortar  should  vary 
with  the  kind  of  cement  and  the  use  for  which  the  work  is  intended. 
With  Rosendale  cement,  the  proportion  of  sand  should  not  exceed 
three  to  one,  and  for  piers  two  to  one. 
Portland  cement  may  contain  sand  in 
proportion  of  four  to  one,  and  lime  mor- 
tar three  to  one.  The  object  of  using 
sand  in  mortar  is  to  prevent  too  much 
shrinkage,  and  as  a  cheaper  material 
than  lime  or  cement,  its  functions  being 
mechanical  rather  than  chemical.  It 
strengthens  lime  mortar,  by  supplying 
a  base  to  which  the  particles  of  lime 
adhere  more  firmly  than  to  each  other, 

but  its  presence  in  cement  mortar  is  a  weakness.  In  all  cases  a 
thorough  mixing  is  essential,  the  object  being  to  so  thoroughly 
mix  the  particles  that  no  two  grains  of  sand  shall  lie  against 
each  other  without  a  film  of  cement  between.  The  cement  and 
sand  should  be  mixed  dry,  the  process  being  to  spread  them  in 
layers  and  then  turn  and  work  the  mass  until  it  is  thoroughly  mixed, 


Fig.  118.    Stone  Skewback. 


122 


LAYOUT  OF  GROUNDS  AROUND  RESIDENCE  OF  MR.  J.  S.  HANNAH,  AT  LAKE  FOREST,  ILL. 

Shepley,  Rutan  &  Coolidge,  Architects,  Chicago,  111. 
For  Exterior  and  Plans,  See  Pages  138  and  154. 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE  113 


when  water  is  added  in  sufficient  quantity  to  obtain  mortar  of  the 
desired  stiffness. 

If  too  much  sand  is  added  the  mortar  will  stick  to  the  trowel 
and  will  not  work  easily.  The  superintendent  should  become,  as 
soon  as  possible,  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  good  mortar  so  that 
he  can  tell  readily  whether  too  much  or  too  little  sand  has  been  added. 
If  the  mortar  slides  easily  from  the  trowel  it  is  usually  of  the  right 
proportion.  In  ordinary  practice,  the  lime  and  sand  are  mixed 
as  soon  as  the  lime  is  slaked  and  allowed  to  stand  until  needed,  but 
it  is  better  not  to  mix  the  sand  until  ready  for  use.  Coarse  sand 
makes  a  stronger  mortar  than  fine  sand,  and  a  fine,  loamy  sand, 
although  it  works  easier  than  sharp  coarse  sand,  does  not  make  a 
strong  mortar. 

LIME  AND  CEMENT. 

Lime  is  now  manufactured  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country, 
but  differs  in  character  in  different  localities.  In  using  a  lime  which 
is  not  already  familiar,  some  inquiry  should  be  made  as  to  its  prop- 
erties, especially  if  used  for  plastering.  Good  lime  in  general 
should  be  free  from  cinders  or  clinkers,  and  with  less  than  10  per  cent 
of  impurities,  and  should  be  found  in  large  lumps  which  will  slake 
readily  in  water,  making  a  soft  paste,  free  from  residue  or  "core." 
It  should  further  completely  dissolve  in  soft  water.  Slaked  lime, 
or  "lime-putty,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  will  keep  indefinitely 
if  protected  from  the  air  so  that  it  does  not  dry  up.  This  is  usually 
done  by  covering  it  with  sand  in  the  bed  in  which  it  is  slaked.  Lime, 
before  slaking,  will  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and  become  "air- 
slaked;"  this  destroys  its  strength  and  care  should  be  taken  that  ajl 
lime  is  carefully  protected  from  dampness  until  used. 

Setting  and  Durability.  Lime  mortar  does  not  possess  the 
"setting"  quality  of  cement,  but  gradually  hardens  by  exposure  to  the 
air.  Lime  mortar  does  not  harden  under  water  or  in  very  damp  situa- 
tions, but  in  dry  places  where  there  is  ample  exposure  to  the  atmos- 
phere, it  will  set  hard  enough  for  all  ordinary  uses  of  brickwork, 
except  arches  and  piers,  and  where  excessive  loads  may  be  applied. 

Hydraulic  Lime  and  Cement.  Some  limes,  after  burning, 
contain  enough  clay  or  silica  to  acquire  the  property  of  setting  under 
water  and  are  called  hydraulic  limes,  but  are  used  to  very  little  extent, 


123 


114  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

as  their  qualities  are  more  easily  and  profitably  obtained  by  the 
use  of  cement,  which  is  now  more  readily  obtained,  although  hy- 
draulic lime  was '  formerly  imported  from  England  and  France. 
Cement  may  be  put  in  two  classes — natural  cement  and  artificial 
cement.  Natural  cement  is  obtained  by  burning  limestones  which 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  clay.  This  forms  a  powder  which, 
when  mixed  with  water,  sets  quickly  either  in  air  or  water.  Natural 
cements  are  made  in  many  localities  throughout  the  country,  Rosen- 
dale  cement  being  probably  the  best  known  brand,  and  this  is  usually 
of  good  quality  and  easily  obtained.  Of  artificial  cements  the  best 
known  is  Portland  cement;  this  is  of  English  origin  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  resemblance  of  a  trowelled  surface,  to  Portland 
stone,  one  of  the  best  known  building  stones  of  England. 

Portland  cement  is  made  by  combining  proper  proportions  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  clay,  silica  and  iron.  This  mixture  is  dried 
and  then  burned  into  a  heavy  vitreous  "clinker,"  which  is  after- 
ward ground  to  a  powder  and  run  through  fine  sieves  to  make  the 
finished  product.  Portland  cement  is  now  manufactured  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  of  as  good  a  quality  as  the  imported 
cements.  Portland  cement  does  not  set  as  quickly  as  common 
cement,  but  possesses  greater  strength.  There  is  now  upon  the 
market  a  grade  of  Portland  cement  known  as  "sand-cement"  in 
which  a  certain  proportion  of  sand  is  mixed  with  the  powder  and 
the  whole  ground  to  the  fineness  of  the  cement;  this  requires  less 
sand  in  the  final  composition  of  the  mortar  and  is  productive  of 
satisfactory  results.  Another  prepared  cement  of  a  nature  similar 
to  Portland  cement  is  known  as  Lafarge  cement,  and  is  useful  in 
setting  limestone  or  marble,  as  it  does  not  stain  like  ordinary  cement. 

Color.  Some  idea  of  the  quality  of  cement  may  be  obtained 
by  a  familiarity  with  its  appearance  upon  opening  the  cask.  With 
common  cement  the  darker  brown  colors,  in  general,  indicate  the 
stronger  qualities.  Too  dark  a  color,  however,  may  indicate,  in  an 
unfamiliar  brand,  the  presence  of  coloring  matter,  usually  lamp- 
black. This  may  be  detected  by  putting  some  of  the  cement  into  a 
glass  of  water,  when  the  lampblack  will  separate  as  a  black  scum. 
With  Portland  cement,  a  clear  grey  or  bluish-grey  color  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  a  brown  color  is  given  by  an  excess  of  clay,  while  too  much 
of  a  bluish  cast  indicates  the  presence  of  too  much  lime.  Further 


124 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


115 


tests  of  cement  may  be  made  as  described  in  Part  I.  for  ordinary 
work,  but  for  important  engineering  works  where  Portland  cement 
is  used,  it  should  be  subjected  to  careful  tests  for  activity,  soundness, 
and  strength,  both  unmixed  and  mixed  with  sand. 

In  general,  to  obtain  the  best  results,  the  superintendent  should 
choose  a  fine,  well-burned  cement  of  average  specific  gravity,  and, 
for  important  work,  test  it  frequently.  This,  mixed  with  a  sand 
that  has  passed  a  careful  scrutiny  for  cleanliness  and  regularity, 
should  give  a  smooth  and  strong  mortar. 

Protection.  Whether  lime  or  cement  mortar  is  used  in  the 
building  of  a  wall,  it  should  be  kept  at  all  times  protected  from  the 
weather  until  the  mortar  has  become  thoroughly  set. 

Brick  Veneer.  In  some  localities,  dwellings  and  light  mer- 
cantile or  public  buildings  are  built  with  a  frame  of  studs  and  board- 
ing, veneered  on  the  outside 
with  four  inches  of  brick.  In 
this  construction,  the  strength 
of  the  building  lies  in  the 
frame,  and  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  this  is  built 
and  braced  in  the  best  man- 
ner, plumb  and  straight  and 
boarded  diagonally,  all  of  well- 
seasoned  stock.  Over  the 
boarding,  tarred  felting  should 
be  placed,  and  an  inch  away 
from  this,  the  four-inch  brick 
wall,  tied  at  short  intervals  to 
the  wooden  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  119.  A  metal  tie  such  as  at 
A  may  be  used  or  the  patented  tie  B,  which  is  better. 

As  moisture  will  collect  in  the  air  space  behind  the  veneer,  the 
ties  will  be  better  if  given  a  drip,  as  for  hollow  walls,  and  a  small 
drain  may  be  laid  at  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall  connected  with 
the  cellar  by  pipes  for  drip  and  ventilation.  This  combination  of 
masonry  and  woodwork  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  general,  but 
should  only  be  used  as  a  matter  of  economy. 

The  use  of  wood  in  the  structure  of  brick  walls,  while  some- 
times necessary,  should  be  avoided  where  possible.  Wooden  lintels 


Fig.  119.    Brick  Veneer. 


125 


116  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

were  formerly  used  to  considerable  extent,  but  are  objectionable 
for  many  reasons.  Besides  being  combustible,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  obtain  beams,  of  the  large  size  which  their  purpose  requires, 
which  are  dry,  and  the  shrinkage  is  pretty  sure  to  make  a  crack  at 
some  time.  (Fig.  120.)  Wooden  plates  inserted  in  the  wall,  for 
a  level  bearing  for  floor  timbers,  should  be  avoided,  as  their  shrink- 
age will  leave  the  bricks  above  unsupported.  Wooden  lintels  may 
be  used  under  arches  to  form  a  square  opening,  but  the  arch  should 
always  spring  from  the  solid  wall  beyond  the  lintel  to  relieve  it  from 

the  load  above.  (Fig.  121.) 
Wooden  strips  are  sometimes 
built  into  the  walls  for  a  nail- 
ing for  furring  and  finish,  but, 
if  used,  should  be  thin  enough 


F^r-       to  lay  in  the  joint;  and  wooden 

bricks,  often  used  for  nailings, 
by  their  shrinkage  will  become 
Fig.  120.  wooden  Lintei.  loose    besides    weakening  the 

walls. 

A  better  way  is  to  use  a  strong  mortar  into  which  the  nails  of 
the  furring  strips  may  be  driven  or  porous  terra  cotta  blocks  may 
be  set  for  nailings  in  special  work. 

Cleaning  Down.  When  a  piece  of  brickwork  is  completed, 
the  exterior  will  need  to  be  cleaned  of  mortar  stains  and  discolorations. 
This  is  done  by  washing  down  . 

the  wall  with  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  muriatic  acid,  using  a 
scrubbing  brush,  followed  by 
washing  with  clear  water  to 
remove  all  trace  of  the  acid. 
The  wall  is  then  often  given 

Fig.  121.    Relieving  Arch. 

a  coat  of  linseed  oil  cut  with 

turpentine.  At  this  time  also,  all  bad  joints  are  pointed  up,  the 
spaces  under  window  sills  are  filled  up,  the  joints  of  stonework 
pointed,  and  the  wall  left  whole  and  clean. 

Waterproofing  of  Walls.  Brick  walls  in  exposed  situations 
are  often  treated  with  some  substance  to  render  them  waterproof. 
One  of  the  most  successful  processes  is  known  as  "Sylvester's  Pro- 


126 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


117 


cess,"  and  consists  in  applying  two  washes  to  the  walls,  one  com- 
posed of  Castile  soap  and  water,  and  the  other  of  alum  and  water. 
These  applied  alternately  will  generally  render  the  work  impervious. 
Several  patented  solutions  are  now  upon  the  market,  each  of  which 
is  warranted  to  protect  against  moisture. 

Efflorescence.  Very  disagreeable  and  very  common  is  the 
white  efflorescence  which  often  appears  upon  the  face  of  the  bricks, 
due  to  the  salts  of  soda  and  potash  being  dissolved  by  the  water 
and  left  on  the  surface  by  evaporation.  Sylvester's  solution  is  a 
preventive  of  this,  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  for  waterproofing, 
and  the  danger  may  be  diminished  by  using  stronger  cement  in  the 
face  joints. 

Repairs.  In  effecting  repairs  in  masonry,  when  new  work 
is  to  be  connected  with  old,  the  mortar  of  the  old  work  must  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  off,  along  the 
surface  where  the  junction  is  to 
be  made,  and  the  surface  thor- 
oughly wet.  The  bond  and  other 
arrangements  will  depend  upon  the 
circumstances  of  the  case.  The 
surfaces  connected  should  be  fitted 
as  accurately  as  practicable,  so 
that  by  using  but  little  mortar, 
no  disunion  may  take  place  from 
settling.  As  a  rule,  it  is  better 
that  new  work  should  butt  against 

the  old,  either  with  a  straight  joint  visible  on  the  face,  or  let  into  a 
chase,  sometimes  called  a  "slip-joint  "  (Fig.  122),  so  that  the  straight 
joint  may  not  show,  but,  if  it  is  necessary  to  bond  them  together,  the 
new  work  should  be  built  in  a  quick-setting  cement  mortar,  and 
each  part  of  it  allowed  to  set  before  being  loaded.  In  pointing  old 
masonry,  all  the  decayed  mortar  must  be  completely  raked  out  with 
a  hooked  iron  point,  and  the  surfaces  well  wetted  before  the  fresh 
mortar  is  applied.  Lining  of  old  walls  should  be  not  less  than 
eight  inches  thick,  anchored  every  two  feet. 

Superintendence.  In  superintending  brickwork,  the  main 
things  to  be  observed  have  been  pointed  out  in  connection  with  the 
construction.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  bricks 


Fig.  122.    Slip  Joint. 


127 


118  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


are  properly  wet,  that  sufficient  mortar,  of  the  proper  quality,  is 
used,  and  that  the  joints  are  thoroughly  filled.  The  bonding  of 
the  wall  must  be  constantly  noticed,  especially  face  work  and  piers. 
The  work  should  be  measured  from  time  to  time  and  the  position 
of  all  openings  noted.  Reveals  and  jambs  should  be  measured  and 
plumbed,  and  the  leveling  of  courses  carefully  watched.  At  the 
level  of  the  floors,  the  bedding  of  all  bearing  plates  must  be  watched 
and. the  number  and  position  of  floor  and  wall  anchors  noticed. 
Recesses  and  flues  should  be  carefully  followed  out,  and  the  tying 
together  of  hollow  walls  should  be  frequent  and  effective.  When 
work  is  stopped,  the  top  of  the  wall  should  be  covered,  to  prevent 
rain  from  washing  out  the  soft  mortar  in  summer,  or  from  entering 
and  freezing  in  winter;  and  to  obtain  the  best  results,  the  laying 
of  brick  walls  should  not  be  attempted  in  freezing  weather. 

For  the  adaptation  of  brick  construction  to  modern  city  building, 
we  may  conceive  the  foregoing  principles  as  elements  to  be  applied 
to  the  different  conditions  and  uses  to  which  the  walls  will  be  put. 

Bearing  walls  are  those  which  carry  besides  their  own  weight 
the  weight  of  floors  or  roofs  which  bear  upon  them.  The  thickness 
of  these  walls  must  necessarily  increase  as  does  the  height  of  the 
building,  and  they  must  also  be  strong  enough  to  brace  the  building 
against  lateral  forces  such  as  wind  pressure,  or  the  vibrations  from 
external  or  internal  sources. 

Curtain  walls  are  those  built  between  steel  or  iron  columns,  or 
between  piers,  and  carry  no  loads  except  their  own  weight.  Their 
thickness  needs  to  be  only  such  as  to  protect  the  outside  of  the  build- 
ing and  give  support  to  walls  above. 

Skeleton  construction  has  all  walls,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the 
building,  supported  by  steel  or  iron  columns  and  beams.  In  this 
case  the  masonry  needs  to  be  only  of  sufficient  thickness  to  protect 
the  building  and  the  frame  against  the  elements,  unless  these  walls 
are  depended  upon  for  stiffening  and  bracing  the  building.  The 
exterior  walls  may  be  of  brick,  concrete,  terra-cotta,  or  other  fire- 
resisting  material,  depending  in  a  measure  upon  the  location,  cus- 
tom, experience  of  builders,  and  the  influence  of  union  labor  in 
various  localities. 

In  the  case  of  a  skeleton  frame,  the  walls  of  each  succeeding 
story  will  be  supported  independently  and  may  be  considered  as 


128 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  119 

curtain  walls.  At  the  present  standard  prices  of  materials,  a  build- 
ing for  ordinary  floor  loads  can  be  erected  eight  stories  high,  with 
continuous  bearing  walls  of  masonry,  more  cheaply  than  with  piers 
and  curtain  walls  or  skeleton  construction.  If,  however,  the  extra 
land  area,  which  the  thicker  bearing  walls  will  require,  is  of  value 
enough,  it  will  be  economy  to  use  skeleton  construction  for  six  or 
even  five-story  buildings,  depending  largely  upon  the  character 
and  location  of  the  building. 

CUT  STONEWORK. 

First  in  consideration  of  the  superintendence  of  stonework  is 
the  preparation  of  the  material.  In  former  times,  for  a  work  of 
importance,  the  stone  was  often  brought  to  the  building  site  in  the 
rough,  as  it  came  from  the  quarry,  and  all  stone  cutting  was  done 
upon  the  spot,  but  in  modern  practice  the  stone  will  be  prepared  at 
a  stone  yard,  often  by  machinery,  and  will  be  ready  to  be  set  when 
received.  The  stone  should  be  carefully  examined  when  delivered 
and  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  great  quantities  without  inspec- 
tion, as  a  thorough  examination  is  then  more  difficult.  According 
to  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  stone  will  have  received  more  or  less 
of  preparation  by  being  worked  into  the  various  shapes  and  finishes 
suited  for  its  purpose. 

Stock.  The  principal  building  stones  in  use  in  this  country  are 
granite,  limestone,  marble  and  sandstone,  and  these  will  be  selected 
for  a  given  building  with  reference  to  color,  durability  and  strength. 
Probably  the  question  of  color  will  enter  more  strongly  into  the 
selection  than  any  other  consideration,  but  this  should  not  wholly 
overshadow  the  consideration  of  strength  and  durability.  Cheap- 
ness and  accessibility  are  factors  which  enter  largely  into  the  question 
of  stone  for  a  building,  and  in  cities,  the  resistance  to  atmospheric 
action  and  especially  to  fire,  may  well  be  considered.  While  no  build- 
ing stone  will  resist  the  action  of  fire  for  any  length  of  time,  of  the 
different  kinds  of  stone  mentioned,  fine-grained  sandstone  will  proba- 
bly stand  the  best,  granite  next,  and  marble  and  limestone  the  least. 

Testing  of  Stone.  Although  it  is  possible  in  most  cases 
to  obtain  stone  for  a  building  from  some  well-known  quarry,  the 
qualities  of  which  have  been  sufficiently  proved,  occasion  may  arise 
when  some  simple  tests  of  a  certain  stone  may  be  desirable.  These 


120  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

tests  should  be  made  for  compactness,  absorption,  strength  and 
fracture.  The  compactness  of  a  stone  can  be  best  determined  by 
comparison  with  some  known  stone  of  similar  constituents,  when  the 
least  porous  in  appearance  will  usually  prove  the  most  durable. 
The  porosity  may  be  determined  by  the  power  of  absorption  which 
it  exerts.  This  may  be  found  by  immersing  the  thoroughly  dried 
stone  in  water,  and  noting  the  difference  in  weight  between  the 
dry  and  the  wet  stone.  The  absorption  of  ten  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  stone  denotes  a  degree  of  porosity  which  is  liable  to  become, 
after  a  while,  grimy  in  appearance,  while  a  hard  non-absorbent 
stone  suffers  little  from  age. 

In  situations  where  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  acids,  as 
in  large  cities  or  manufacturing  towns,  there  will  be  danger  from  the 
solubility  of  the  stone,  especially  in  damp  climates.  Too  great  a 
tendency  may  be  discovered  by  soaking  the  stone  in  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  acid,  or  by  dropping  acid  upon  the  surface,  when  presence 
of  soluble  carbonates  will  be  denoted  by  an  effervescence.  The 
presence  of  substances  easy  of  solution  in  water,  may  be  detected 
by  placing  some  of  the  powdered  stone  in  a  glass  with  water  and 
allowing  the  particles  to  settle.  If  the  water  is  later  disturbed,  the 
presence  of  soluble  matter  will  cause  the  water  to  turn  muddy,  but 
if  the  water  remains  clear  it  will  denote  the  presence  of  only  insoluble 
crystals. 

FINISHING  OF  STONE. 

The  method  of  finishing  a  stone  has  a  great  effect,  not  only  upon 
its  appearance,  but  upon  its  durability.  The  less  pounding  a  stone 
receives  the  stronger  it  will  be,  since  the  repeated  jar  tends  to  separate 
the  particles  and  render  the  stone  less  durable.  For  this  reason 
it  is  only  granite  and  hard  sandstones  that  are  usually  treated  by 
hammering  the  surface,  the  softer  stones  being  generally  finished 
by  the  use  of  some  form  of  chisel. 

Tools.     The  principal  tools  used  in  stone-cutting  are: 

1.  The  axe  or  pean  hammer.     This  is  a  solid  tool  with  two 
cutting  edges,  and  is  used  for  making  the  draft  line  or  margin  on 
granite  and  in  leveling  off  the  face.     (Fig.  123 A.) 

2.  The  tooth  axe  is  similar  to  the  axe,  except  that  the  cutting 
edges  are  divided  into  teeth.     This  is  used  on  sandstones  as  well  as 
on  granite.     (Fig.  123B.) 


13Q 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


121 


3.  The  bush  hammer,  a  square  head  cut  into  a  number  of 
points.    This  is  used  for  finishing  sandstone  and  granite.    (Fig.  124A.) 

4.  The  crandall,  an  iron  handle  with  a  long  slot  at  one  end 
into  which  are  wedged  a  number  of  double-headed  points.     These 
points  are  secured  by  a  key  and  may  be  removed  for  sharpening. 


Pig.  123.    Axe  and  Tooth  Axe. 


B. 

Fig.  124.    Bush  Hammer  and  Crandall. 


A. 


This  is  a  common  way  of  finishing  sandstone  after  the  surface  has 
been  leveled  by  means  of  a  tooth  chisel.     (Fig.  124B.) 

5.  The  patent  hammer,  a  hammer  formed  of  a  number  of  thin 
blades  of  steel  which  are  bolted  into  a  heavy  head,  and  used  for 
finishing  granite  and  hard  sandstones.     (Fig.  125 A.) 

6.  Chisels  of  various  form, 
among  which  are  to  be  found  the 
point  No.  1 ,  chisel  and  tooth  chisel 
Nos.  2  and  3,  the  drove  No.  4, 
all    for    use  with    a    mallet,  the 
hammer  chisel  No.  5,  and  pitch- 
ing tools  Nos.  6  and  7.  (Fig.  125.) 

Finish.  The  simplest  of 
the  various  finishes  which  are 
given  to  cut  stone  is  the  rockface, 
shown  in  Fig.  126.  In  this,  the 
face  of  the  stone  is  left  rough, 
the  edges  being  pitched  off  to  a 
line.  A  margin  or  draft  line  is 
often  cut  around  the  edge,  leaving  the  center  with  rockface. 
(Fig  127.)  Pointed  work  (Fig.  128)  is  done  by  taking  off  the 
surface  of  the  stone  with  a  point,  and  is  made  rough  or  fine- 
pointed  according  to  the  position  or  importance  of  the  stone.  This 


23456  7 

Fig.  125.    Patent  Hammer  and  Chisels. 


131 


122 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


is  used  mainly  in  granite,  a  similar  effect  being  obtained  in  soft 
stones  by  use  of  the  tooth  chisel.  Tooled  work  (see  Fig.  129)  is  done 
in  straight  lines  clear  across  the  face  of  the  stone  and  is  used  a  great 
deal  for  sandstone  and  limestone. 

Bush  hammering,  as  its"  name  implies,  consists  in  hammering 


Fig.  126.    Pitching  off  for 
Rock  Face. 


Fig.  127.    Rock  Face  with 
Draft  Line. 


Fig.  128.    Pointed  Work. 


the  stone,  usually  granite,  with  a  bush  hammer,  leaving  the  surface 
covered  with  points. 

Patent  hammered  work,  Fig.  130,  leaves  the  surface  covered 
with  a  series  of  ridges  and  is  known  as  "six-cut,"  "eight-cut,"  or 
"ten-cut "  work,  according  to  the  number  of  points  to  the  inch.  This 
is  a  usual  finish  for  granite  and  is  generally  called  for  as  "eight-cut" 
work.  Crandalled  work,  Fig.  131,  is  used  for  sandstone  more  than 
any  other  finish,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  lines  crossing  each  other, 
or  running  all  one  way,  according  to  whether  the  crandall  is  used 


Fig.  129.    Tooled  Work. 


Fig.  130.    Patent  Ham- 
mered Work. 


Fig.  131.  Crandalled  Work. 


from  one  side  or  from  both.  If  a  smooth  finish  is  desired  the  stones 
may  be  rubbed.  This  is  easily  and  cheaply  done  when  the  stone  is 
first  sawed,  and  makes  a  good  finish.  Vermiculated  work,  shown 
in  Fig.  132,  is  obtained  by  working  the  surface  all  over  in  imitation 


135? 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


123 


of  the  destruction  by  worms.     This  is  expensive  and  is  rarely  used 
except  for  quoins. 

The  inspection  of  stone  at  the  building  should  be  very  thorough 
especially  in  the  matter  of  finish.  The  finer 
the  degree  of  firiish,  the  more  costly  will  be 
the  labor,  and  for  this  reason  there  is  often  a 
tendency  to  slight  the  work.  Eight-cut  gran- 
ite will  often  be  found  to  be  six-cut,  and  fine- 
pointed  or  fine-crandalled  work  will  some- 
times be  found  to  be  rough  and  coarse. 


Fig.  132.    Verruiculated 
Work. 


STONE  flASONRY. 


Rubble.  Of  the  different  kinds  of  stonework,  rubble  masonry 
requires  less  preparation  of  the  material  than  any  other  use  of  the 
stone,  and  covers  a  wide  range  of  construction,  from  ordinary  founda- 
tion walls,  such  as  we  have  already  considered,  to  the  handsome 

^ well-pointed  masonry  of 

//  if  churches  and   other  buikU 

•* ft  I  g"  T%- 

ings. 

Two  definite  classes  of 
rubble  work  are  recognized : 
(1)  uncoursed  rubble,  in 
which  stones  of  irregular 
shape  are  laid  as  they  come 
to  hand  with  no  attempt  at 
level  courses,  as  in  Fig.  133; 
and  (2)  coursed  rubble,  in 
which  the  blocks  are  lev- 
elled off  at  regular  heights  to  a  horizontal  bed,  as  in  Fig.  134.  A 
wall  of  rubble  is  finished  by  pointing  up  the  joints  with  cement 
mortar  colored  to  taste,  usually  to  the  same  color  as  the  stone,  when 
this  is  at  all  even  colored.  Sometimes  a  false  joint  of  red  or  wrhite 
mortar  is  run  upon  this  pointing  to  imitate  ashlar  work. 

Uncoursed  rubble  is  sometimes  laid  with  irregular  pieces  having 
hammered  joints  which  are  fitted  together  with  no  "spalls,"  or  small 
stones,  between.  (Fig.  135.)  This  is  an  expensive  and  tedious 
process  but  is  very  effective  when  well  done.  The  coursing  of 
rubble  is  not  necessarily  uniform,  or  at  the  same  level  throughout, 


Fig.  133.    Uncoursed  Rubble. 


133 


124 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


but  may  rise  and  fall  by  level  stages  to  accommodate  the  size  of 

the  materials. 

The  superintendence  of  this  class  of  work,  beyond  a  general 

inspection  of  the  quality  and  soundness  of  the  stone,  will  be  mainly 

to  see  that  the  stones  are  well  laid  after  being  suitably  prepared  by 

roughly  squaring  with  a  hammer,  and  knocking  off  all  weak  angles 

and   projections.     The  stones 

j[___  should  be  clean  and  free  from 

dust,  and  should  be  moistened 
before  laying.  Mortar  should 
be  used  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  permit  of  each  stone  being 
firmly  imbedded,  and  all  hol- 
lows between  the  large  stones 
should  be  filled  with  small 
stones  carefully  bedded  in  the 
mortar.  All  large  stones  should 
be  laid  on  their  natural  bed, 

and  should  be  so  used  that  the  side  parallel  to  the  bed  shall  be  the 

largest,  so  that  the  stones  shall  lie  flat  and  in  no  case  be   set  on 

edge  or  on  end.     Care  must  be  taken  to  break  joints,  and  no  side 

joint  should  form  an  angle  with  the  bed   of  less  than  60  degrees. 
The  bonding  of  a  rubble  wall  must  be  carefully  watched,  and 

bond  stones  freely  used.     If  the 

rubble  is  backed  with  brick,  as  is 

often  the   case,  iron  clamps  and 

ties  should  be  inserted,  which  may 

run  through  the  wall  and  turn  up 

up  behind  the  brick,  if  the  back  of 

the  wall  is  to  be  concealed,  and 

they   should    run  to  the    inside 

course    of    bricks    in.  any   case. 

(Fig.    136.)      If  rubble  is    used 

as  a  backing  for  cut  stone,  the 


Fig.  134.    Coursed  Rubble. 


Fig.  135.    Hammered  Joints  with  no 
"  Spalls." 


facing  should  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  thick  stones  which  will  bond  well  with  the  rubble. 
These  bond  stones  may  be  left  rough  at  the  back  and  sides,  but 
the  upper  and  lower  beds  should  be  level,  so  that  they  will  have 


134 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


125 


no  tendency  to  wedge  off  the  backing.  This  backing  should  be 
carried  up  at  the  same  time  as  the  face  work  with  the  coursing 
leveled  off  at  the  same  place.  A  good  proportion  of  thick  stones 
running  two-thirds  or  more  across  the  thickness  of 
the  wall  is  better  than  a  few  extending  through  the 
wall. 

Ashlar  Masonry  consists  of  blocks  of  stone 
which  have  been  cut  to  a  regular  figure,  generally 
rectangular  in  shape,  and  laid  in  courses  of  usually 
a  foot  or  more  in  height.  (Fig.  137.)  If  the 
courses  are  not  maintained  at  the  same  level  con- 
tinuously, but  are  laid  of  stones  of  unequal  height 
but  still  level  and  plumb,  the  work  is  called  "broken 
ashlar,"  shown  in  Fig.  138. 

In  all  ashlar  work  of  soft  material,  such  as 
limestone,  no  stone  should  have  a  length  greater 
than  three  times  its  height.  In  harder  stone  the 
length  may  be  four  or  five  times  the  height.  The  thickness  in  soft 
stone  may  be  once-and-one-half  or  twice  the  height;  in  hard  stone, 
three  times  the  height. 

Laying.    The  bed  upon  which  the  stones  are  laid  should  be  level, 

and  cleared  of  dust  or  refuse,  and  well  moistened  with  water.     Upon 

II  li  |;          this  the  bed  of  mortar  is  spread 

evenly.  Wooden  wedges  of  the 
_    thickness  of  the  joint  are  then 
laid  on  the   face   of  the  bed, 
r     and   the   stone  carefully  low- 
ered upon  the  wedges,  to  be 
-     moved  into  exact  position  by 
the  aid  of  a  "pinch  bar."     In 
u    using  a  bar  or  rollers  in  hand- 
ling cut  stone,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  protect  the  edges  of 
Fig.  137.   Ashlar  Masonry.  the  stone  by  bagging  or  other 

"softening."  When  the  stone  is  in  its  final  position,  the  wedges 
may  be  removed  and  the  stone  settled  into  place  and  leveled  by 
striking  with  a  wooden  mallet.  In  the  case  of  heavy  stones  where 
there  would  be  danger  of  the  weight  of  the  stone  squeezing  the 


135 


126 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  138.    Broken  Ashlar. 


mortar  out  of  the  joint,  the  wooden  wedges  are  allowed  to  remain 
until  the  mortar  has  set.  The  bed  of  mortar  should  be  kept 
back  an  inch  or  so  from  the  face  of  the  stone,  so  that  the 
stone  shall  not  bear  on  its  outer  edge.  This  will  save  raking  out 
the  mortar  when  the  wall  is  to  be  pointed,  and  will  prevent  any  dan- 
ger of  the  splitting  off  of  "spalls"  on  the  face,  which  might  occur 

on  account  of  the  mortar  on 

II  fl        |         I          a  the  face  of  the  joint  becoming 

— . — I  hard   sooner  than  the  inside, 

I ii  II  when  the  unequal  settlement 

If--  if-     u        '         II  would  bring    pressure  on  the 

edge  of  the  stone. 

The  same  defect  may  oc- 
cur if  the  bed  of  the  stone  is 
cut  hollow  or  slack,  as  in  Fig. 
139,  when  the  settlement  of 
the  mortar  will  bring  the 
whole  pressure  upon  the  front 
edge  of  the  stone  with  the 
same  result.  For  this  reason,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  bed 
joints  are  square  and  true.  Door  and  window  sills  should  be 
bedded  only  under  their  ends,  as  the  natural  settlement  will  cause 
them  to  break  if  bedded  under  the  opening. 
(Fig.  140.)  Stone  work  in  damp  situations 
should  be  set  in  cement  mortar,  but  lime  may 
be  used  if  the  situation  is  dry.  Limestone  and 
marble,  and  some  sandstones,  are  often  badly 
stained  by  the  use  of  cement  mortar,  and  inquiry 
in  respect  to  this  should  always  be  made  before 
using  an  unfamiliar  stone. 

In  case  of  danger  from  this  source,  Lafarge 
cement,  a  cement  made  of  lime,  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  marble  dust,  may  be  used,  which  should  be 
plastered  over  the  back  of  the  stone  as  well,  if  cement  must  be  used 
in  the  backing. 

Bonding.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  vertical  joint  in  any 
course  comes  over  a  joint  in  the  course  below,  but  the  stones  should 
break  joints  or  overlap,  preferably  to  an  extent  of  from  once  to  once- 


Fig.  139.  Hollow  and 
Slack  Joints. 


136 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


127 


and-a-half  the  height  of  the  course,  so  that  each  stone  will  be  sup- 
ported by  at  least  two  stones  of  the  course  below,  and  will  in  turn 

support  at  least  two  stones  of  the  course  above.     This  will  not  only 

distribute    the    pressure    of    the 

weight    above,  but    will   tie  the 

wall  together    in    its    length,  by 

means    of    the    friction   of    the 

stones  where  they  overlap.     For 

the  same  reason,  the  thickness  of 

the  stones  should  vary,  so  as  to 

make   a  bond    in    and    out    of 

the   wall,    as   in   Fig.    141,    and 

at  least  one  stone  in  every  ten  square  feet  of  wall  should  be 
the  full  thickness.  The  strongest  bond  in  a  wall 
of  cut  ashlar  is  one  in  which  each  course  contains 
a  header  and  stretcher  alternately,  the  outer  end 
of  each  header  coming  on  the  middle  of  the 
stretcher.  (Fig.  142.)  In  broken  ashlar  work  the 
bond  should  be  carefully  preserved,  and,  in  the 
case  of  broken  ashlar  used  with  a  brick  backing, 
it  will  be  convenient  to  use  stones  of  a  thickness 
of  four,  eight,  and  twelve  inches,  alternating,  so 
that  the  bond  may  be  obtained  through  and 

Fig.  i4i.   Bond  stone.  tnrough  witnOut  much  cutting  of  the  bricks. 

In  the  backing  of  ashlar,  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  should  be 


5OND  J.TOME 


I  •'•'.' 


made  as  thin  as  possible,  and 
cement  should  be  used  to  pre- 
vent shrinkage  of  the  joints, 
which  will  necessarily  be  more 
numerous  than  the  joints  of 
the  ashlar  facing.  Brick 
backing  should  not  be  less 
than  eight  inches  thick,  and, 
if  the  facing  is  in  courses  ex- 
ceeding a  foot  in  height,  each 
large  piece  should  be  tied  to 
the  brick  by  iron  clamps  in  the  proportion  of  about  every  three  feet 
in  the  length  of  the  wall,  and  two  feet  in  the  height.  It  will  be  of 


Fig.  142.    Bonded  Ashlar. 


137 


128  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

advantage  in  this  class  of  work  if  the  horizontal  joints  are.  not 
allowed  to  run  to  a  great  length.  Changing  the  level  of  the  courses 
every  four  or  five  feet  will  make  a  good  looking  wall.  Broken  ash- 
lar is  usually  prepared  at  the  building  site,  but  it  will  be  a  saving  if 
the  stones  are  cut  to  the  required  heights  in  the  yard,  leaving  only  an 
end  joint  to  be  cut  at  the  building. 

Quoins,  Jambs  and  Lintels.     The  corner  stones  of  a  building 
are  called  quoins,  and  they  are  often  given  prominence  over  the  iVee 
of  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  143.     In  broken  a.:hlar 
the   quoins   should  be    as    large  in    height    as 
the  largest  of  the  wall  stones.     Atones   at  the 
sides  of  openings  are  called  jamb  stones  and 
are  often  used  in  a  manner  similar  to  quoins. 
Lintels  or  caps  arc  the  stones  which  cover  door 
or  window  openings.     They  are  usually  in  one 
piece,  as  in  Fig.  144  A,  but  are  sometimes  nec- 
Fig.  us.   Quoins.        essarily  jointed.     (Fig.  144  B.)     In  this  case 
the  joints  should   be  "toggled"  as   shown.     If   the  lintel  spans  an 

opening  which  is  too  great  for  I  ~ 

its  carrying  capacity,  it   may 

be  assisted  by  the  use  of  a  steel 

angle-bar  or  beam.   (Fig.  145.) 

Lintels   should    bear    at    the  IPflillll'"1' 

ends  at  least  four  inches,  and      r  P  jf\  1 

in  the  case  of  the  lintel  being 

thicker    than     the    jamb,    it 

should   have   bearing  enough  |(         "         |         B  .       | 

to  reach    beyond    any   recess 

which  the  window  frame  may 

require,  as  in  Fig.  146,  so  that 

the  inside  of  the  lintel  will  be 


^iiiiW'       '  V 


supported. 

Columns,   Arches    and 

Trimmings.  Columns,  where  the  material  will  allow,  should  be  cut 
in  one  piece  with  separate  capitals  and  bases,  and  great  care  should 
be  taken  in  cutting,  and  also  in  setting,  to  have  the  bed  joints  per- 
fectly level  to  the  axis  of  the  column.  Clear  cement  mortar  should 
be  used  for  setting,  and  especial  care  taken  to  keep  the  outside  of 


138 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


129 


Fig.  145.    Steel  Sup- 
port of  Lintel. 


the  joint  empty  for  a  depth  of  at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch, 
to  prevent  chipping  the  column.  Lintels  or  cornices  over  columns 
are  often  exposed  on  both  sides  and  should  be  cut  from  one  stone 
if  practicable;  if  not,  they  may  be  built  up  as 
shown.  (Fig.  147.)  In  this  case  the  stones 
should  be  carefully  tied  and  clamped  together. 

Arches,  if  too  large  to  be  cut  with  solid 
stones,  may  be  built  up  where  they  are  required 
to  show  both  sides.  (Fig.  148.)  In  the  setting 
of  stone  arches  great  care  is  necessary  to  preserve 
the  perfect  form  of  the  arch.  The  joints  should 
always  be  of  equal  thickness  throughout  and  the 
mortar  kept  back  from  the  face.  This  is  of  greater 
necessity  than  in  the  horizontal  courses,  as  the 
joints  of  the  arch  are  under  increased  pressure.  The  backing  of 
arches  should  be  laid  in  cement,  and  well  tied  to  the  stones  of  the 
arch  by  clamps.  Where  two  arches  come  together,  the  first  stone, 
called  the  "skewback,"  should  be  in  one  piece  for  the  two  arches 
(Fig.  149),  for  if  each  stone  were  cut  to  the  shape  of  its  arch  there 

would  be  left   a   small   wedge-shaped 

|  If        ~  fc  stone,  A,    which,    if   separate,   might 

crowd  the  arch  stones  in.  The  same 
thing  should  be  done  where  an  arch 
comes  near  to  a  corner  as  at  B. 

Flat  arches  are  often  used,  but, 
while  they  are  architecturally  pleasing, 
they  are  liable  to  constructional  weak- 
ness, and  if  they  cannot  be  given  a 
good  height,  they  should  be  cut  as  a 
lintel  with  false  joints  on  the  face.  If 
the  opening  is  not  wide,  a  flat  arch  may 


Fig.  lie.  Bearing  of  stone  Lintel.    be  cut  in  tnree    pieces,  the  key  with 
its  side    pieces    being    separate  from 

the  other  two  pieces,  as  in  Fig.  150.  In  this  case,  and  also  in 
the  case  of  B  in  Fig.  144,  the  center  should  be  set  about  a  quarter- 
inch  higher  than  the  jambs,  to  allow  for  settlement. 

Centering.      For  the  construction  of  arches,  whether  of  stone 
or  other  material,  wood  centers  will  be  required.     These  should  be 


139 


130 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


strongly  made  and  should  be  left  in  position  until  the  mortar  in  the 
joints  has  become  hard.  Centers  for  small  arches  are  usually  made 
of  plank,  with  two  ribs  set  apart  to  the  thickness  required,  and  con- 

nected for  a  bearing  surface  by 
strips  of  £  X  2-inch  stick  nailed 
to  the  tops  of  the  ribs.  A  center 
of  this  sort  is  supported  by 
wooden  posts  from  the  sill  or 
floor  below.  If  the  arch  is  of  a 
large  span,  the  pieces  will  be 
more  in  number,  in  order  to  use 
planks  of  ordinary  width,  and 
the  center  will  need  additional 
support  and  tics  as  shown  by  Fig. 
151.  These  centers  should  be 


Fig.  147.    Built-up  Cornice 


wedged  up  in  setting,  to  permit  of  easy  adjustment  or  removal. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  LAYING  STONE. 

1.  Build  the  masonry,  as  far  as  possible,  in  a  series  of  courses, 
perpendicular,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  to  the  direction  of  the 
pressure  which  they  have  to  bear,  and  by  breaking  joints,  avoid  all 
long  continuous  joints  parallel  to  that  pressure. 


Pig.  148,    Construction 
of  Arch. 


Fig.  149.     Solid  Skewbacks. 


2.  Use  the  largest  stones  for  the  foundation  course. 

3.  Lay  all  stones  which  consist  of  layers  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  principal  pressure  which  they  have  to  bear  shall  act  in  a  direction 


140 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


131 


perpendicular,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  to  the  direction  of  the 
layers.  This  is  called  laying  the  stone  on  its  natural  bed,  and  is  of 
primary  importance  for  strength  and  durability. 

4.  Moisten  the  surface  of  dry  and  porous  stones  before  bedding 
them,  in  order  that  the  mortar  may  not  be  dried  too  fast  and  reduced 
to  powder  by  the  stone  absorbing  its  moisture. 

5.  Fill  every  part  of  every  joint,  and  all  spaces  between  the 
stones,  with  mortar,  taking  care  at  the  same  time  that  such  spaces 
shall  be  as  small  as  possible. 

6.  The  rougher  the  stones,  the  better  the  mortar  should  be. 
The  principal  object  of  the 

'  L 


mortar  is 
pressure ; 


Fig.  150.    Flat  Arch  of  Stone. 


to  equalize  the 
and  the  more 
nearly  the  stones  are  dressed 
to  closely  fitting  surfaces, 
the  less  important  is  the 
mortar.  Not  infrequently, 
this  rule  is  exactly  reversed  • 
i.e.,  the  finer  the  dressing, 
the  better  the  quality  of  the  mortar  used. 

All  projecting  courses,  such  as  sills  and  lintels,  should  be  covered 
with  boards,  bagging  etc.,  as  the  work  progresses,  to  protect  them 

from  injury  and  mortar  stains. 
When  setting  cut  stone,  a 
pailful  of  clean  water  should 
be  kept  at  hand,  and  when 
any  fresh  mortar  comes  in 
contact  with  the  face  of  the 
work  it  should  be  immediately 
washed  off. 

General  Inspection,  The 
superintendence  of  cut  stone- 
work requires  constant  attention,  as  it  is  expensive  and  annoy- 
ing to  be  obliged  to  remove  a  stone  after  it  has  been  set  in  the 
wall.  There  are  also  many  devices  by  which  defective  stock 
and  workmanship  may  be  concealed,  which  can  only  be 
avoided  by  vigilance  and  the  exercise  of  considerable  knowledge  of 
practices. 


Fig.  151.    Wooden  Centering  for  Arch. 


141 


132 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  first  thing  necessary  is  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  stone 
as  delivered,  and  a  careful  search  for  defects  which  are  known  to  be 
likely  to  occur  in  the  various  kinds  of  stone. 

Granite  often  develops  local  defects,  such  as  seams,  knots,  or 
brown  stains  known  as  sap.  The  latter  will  be  apparent  upon  exam- 
ination, but  seams  are  to  be  detected  by  striking  the  stone  with  a 
hammer,  when  a  flawless  stone  will  ring  clearly. 

Sandstones  will  often  be  found  with  small  holes,  called  sand 
holes,  and  of  an  uneven  color;  there  will  also  be  local  discolorations 
which  are  sometimes  developed  by  cutting,  and  do  not  appear  until 
so  much  expense  has  been  put  upon  the  stone  that  the  contractor 
is  often  tempted  to  pass  it  as  perfect  if  he  can  do  so.  Considerable 
firmness  may  be  necessary  to  obtain  work  in  exact  conformity  with 
the  specifications,  but  this  should  be  insisted  upon  at  all  times. 
Another  defect  which  requires  the  exercise  of  great  judgment  is  the 
matter  of  patched  stones.  Expensive  stones  are  often  marred  by 
the  cutting  or  handling,  and  are  then  so  skilfully  patched  by  the  use 
of  melted  shellac  and  stone  dust,  that  they  may  be  overlooked  until 
set,  when  they  often  cannot  be  replaced  without  considerable  delay. 
In  this  case,  if  the  owner  agrees,  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain, 
but  the  superintendent  should  see  that  the 
patching  is  properly  done.  Where  a  mould- 
ing in  this  case  has  been  knocked  off  and 
simply  stuck  on  again  with  shellac,  the 
superintendent  should  insist  that  a  square 
block  should  be  dovetailed  in  and  the 
moulding  re-cut. 

In  the  dressing  of  the  stone,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  work  is  as 
finely  cut  as  called  for,  and  mouldings  should 
be  cut  according  to  details  and  matched 
together  perfectly.  Ashlar  work  should  be 
cut  with  full  bed  joints  without  hollows  or 
thin  edges  (Fig.  152),  and  should  be  cut  so  as  to  lie  on  its  natural  bed. 
Anchors  should  be  freely  used,  and  the  bonding  of  ashlar  and  backing 
carefully  watched.  The  setting  of  columns,  arch  stones,  and  moulded 
work  should  be  especially  noted  to  see  that  the  mortar  is  kept  well 
back  from  the  edges  to  prevent  their  splitting  off,  and  the  tying  of 


Fig.  153.    Improper  Stone 
Cutting. 


142 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  133 

continuous  courses  to  each  other  at  the  ends  should  be  insisted  upon. 
Projecting  courses  must  be  bevelled  off  on  the  top  to  shed  water  and 
should  also  have  a  drip  cut  on  the  under  side,  so  that  the  water  will 
drop  off  and  not  run  down  the  side  of  the  building.  (Fig.  153.) 
The  bed  which  lies  in  the  wall,  however,  must  not  be  bevelled,  but 
must  be  cut  level  to  maintain  the  full  bearing  of  the  stones  in  the  wall. 

Pointing.  When  the  exterior  masonry  of  the  building  is  done, 
the  whole  of  the  stonework  must  be  washed  down  and  pointed. 
This  should  never  be  done  in  freezing  weather,  and  if  done  in  ex- 
tremely hot  weather  there  will  be  danger  of  the  mortar  drying  too 
quickly.  For  ordinary  stonework,  Portland  cement  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  sand,  and  enough  water  to  make  a  stiff  mortar, 
makes  a  good  pointing  mortar;  but  for  limestone,  marble,  or  any 
stone  which  will  be  stained  by  cement, 
lime  mortar,  Lafarge,  or  other  non- 
staining  cement  must  be  used.  If  the 
joints  are  not  already  clean,  they  must 
be  raked  out  to  the  depth  of  an  inch 
and  moistened,  and  the  pointing  mor- 
tar applied  with  a  small  pointing 
trowel,  and  then  rubbed  in  smooth 
with  a  jointing  tool.  Either  a  concave, 
flush,  or  projecting  joint  may  be  made,  Fie- 153-  DriP  of  cornice  stone. 
but  the  concave  joint  is  more  durable  than  the  others.  The  washing 
down  of  the  stonework  will  be  done  at  the  same  time  as  the  point- 
ing, and  should  be  done  with  dilute  muriatic  acid,  using  a  stiff 
scrubbing  brush.  Wire  brushes  are  sometimes  used  to  clean  down 
marble  and  granite  work.  The  trade  of  pointing  is  in  some  locali- 
ties made  a  distinct  branch  of  building  trade,  and  in  others  the  work 
is  done  by  the  mason. 

When  possible,   a  professional  "pointer"  should  be  obtained, 
as  he  will  usually  have  better  appliances,  ready  for  immediate  use, 
than  will  the  mason,  whose  use  for  them  will  naturally  be  occasional. 
ROOFING  AND  flETAL  WORK. 

With  the  completion  of  the  exterior  masonry  of  a  building  will 
come,  in  most  cases,  the  covering  in,  as  practically  nothing  further 
than  the  rough  work  of  flooring  can  be  done  inside  until  the  work 
is  protected  from  the  weather  by  a  roof. 


143 


134  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


For  the  roof  covering,  a  variety  of  materials  may  be  used,  com- 
mon among  which  may  be  mentioned  tin,  copper,  slate,  tiles,  and  for 
flat  roofs,  tar  and  gravel  composition,  besides  many  patented  prep- 
arations of  paper  and  tar  which  may  be  used  for  temporary  roofs. 
Tin  Roofs.  The  cheapest,  and  at  the  same  time  the  least 
satisfactory  of  permanent  roofing  materials  is  probably  tin.  This 
may  be  used  on  steep  roofs  or  on  comparatively  flat  roofs,  the  least 
inclination  advisable  being  f  inch  to  the  foot.  The  boarding  under 
a  tin  roof  should  be  smoothly  matched  and  covered  with  dry  sheathing 
paper,  and  any  holes  in  the  boarding  should  be  filled  up.  The  sheets 
of  tin  for  a  flat  roof  are  prepared  by  turning  the  edges  over  so  as  to 
lock  with  the  edge  of  the  next  sheet  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  154,  and 

they  should  be  painted  on 
the  under  side  and  allowed 
to  dry  before  laying.  The 
usual  method  of  laying  is 
to  run  the  sheets  in  courses 
L.  pj  across  the  roof,  each  course 

Fig.  154.   seams  in  Tin  Roof.  being  nailed  at  the  top  with 

short  wire  nails   under  the 

lap  of  the  tin.  This  method  of  fastening  should  not  be  permitted 
in  a  roof  of  any  extent,  as  the  rigid  nailing  of  each  sheet  will 
give  the  roof  a  wavy  appearance  when  the  metal  expands,  and 
the  wrenching  of  the  tin  will  often  draw  out  the  nails  or  tear  the  tin 
from  the  heads.  When  this  occurs,  the  great  mass  of  tin  will  rattle 
against  the  roof,  besides  being  exposed  to  the  danger  of  leaking. 
The  proper  way  to  secure  the  tin  is  by  the  use  of  strips  of  tin  called 
cleats,  cut  about  H  X  4  inches.  These  cleats  should  be  locked  over 
the  turned  edge  of  the  sheet  and  nailed  to  the  roof,  being  concealed 
by  the  next  sheet  added.  These  cleats  should  be  used  about  every 
fourteen  inches  along  the  upper  edge  and  the  sido  of  the  sheet  of  tin, 
and  they  will  allow  the  roof  to  expand  without  drawing  the  nails  or 
destroying  the  tin. 

When  the  roof  has  been  covered,  the  seams  are  all  pounded  down 
and  carefully  soldered,  making  a  continuous  covering. 

Against  chimneys,  dormers,  or  other  openings  in  the  roof,  the 
tin  should  be  turned  up  at  least  four  inches  to  be  capped  by  vertical 
flashings  of  lead  or  zinc,  with  gable  ends  carried  out  and  tacked  over 


144 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  135 

the  edge  of  the  mouldings  and  finish.  Connections  should  be  made 
with  metal  gutters  and  finish  by  locking  and  soldering. 

For  large  and  steep  roofs  of  tin,  greater  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  expansion,  and  this  is  done  by  means  of  standing  seams,  B, 
which  are  formed  by  locking  together  vertically  ''the  sloping  seams  of 
the  roof,  the  horizontal  seams  being  flat.  To  do  this  the  sheets  of 
tin  are  locked  and  soldered  together  into  strips  running  up  the  roof, 
and  these  strips  are  turned  up  and  locked  together  without  soldering, 
held  in  place  by  cleats.  When  finished,  the  seam  should  be  about 
an  inch  in  height. 

Standing  seams  are  often  used  for  effect,  and  a  still  stronger 
appearance  may  be  given  by  ribs  of  wood  over  which  the  tin  is  locked. 
The  tinning  of  a  roof  should  be  carefully  watched  to  see  that  tin  of 
the  required  quality  is  used,  that  the  cleats  are  put  in  as  described, 
and  that  acid  is  not  used  in  soldering.  Only  resin  should  be  allowed 
as  a  flux  for  soldering,  as  acid,  which  is  more  easily  used,  will  injure 
the  tin.  The  standard  sizes  of  roofing  plates  are  14  X  20  inches  and 
20  X  28  inches;  and  they  are  made  in  two  thicknesses  marked  I  C 
and  I  X,  the  former  weighing  8  oz.  to  the  square  foot  and  the  latter 
ten  ounces.  The  lighter  brand  is  more  extensively  used,  but  for  first- 
class  work  and  flashings,  nothing  but  I  X  tin  should  be  used.  Im- 
perfect sheets,  called  "wasters,"  are  put  upon  the  market,  and  are 
packed  in  boxes  marked  I  C  W  or  I  X  W  according  to  the  thickness, 
so  that  where  perfect  plates,  called  "prime,"  are  called  for,  the  super- 
intendent should  reject  any  boxes  marked  "W."  The  best  grades  of 
tin  are  now  sold  with  the  name  of  the  brand  and  the  weight  stamped 
on  every  sheet,  and  this  should  be  noted  for  first-class  work.  It  is 
worth  remembering  that  the  smaller  sheets  will  make  a  stronger  and 
better  roof  than  the  larger,  and  for  a  steep  roof  with  standing  seams 
the  sheets  should  be  laid  with  the  narrow  way  for  the  width  between 
the  sloping  seams,  as  this  gives  more  chance  for  expansion.  Tin 
roofs  should  not  be  painted  until  the  rain  has  had  a  chance  to  wash 
the  tin  clean  of  grease,  and  all  traces  of  resin  should  be  removed. 

Tin  roofs,  while  under  construction,  should  be  kept  clean,  and 
rubbish  never  be  allowed  to  collect,  as  nails  and  other  hard  substances 
are  liable  to  cause  perforations  of  the  tin  if  stepped  on  by  careless 
workmen.  If  tin  is  used  for  covering  of  a  fireproof  roof,  the  top 
filling  should  be  of  porous  terra  cotta  which  will  receive  the  nails,  and 


145 


136 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


an  even  surface  should  be  secured  by  smoothly  plastering  the  surface 
of  the  terra  cotta  with  hard  cement.  Steep  fireproof  roofs  are  often 
made  by  using  hollow  terra  cotta  tiles  between  T-irons,  -which  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Copper  Roofing,  The  methods  of  laying  copper  roofing  differ 
very  little  from  those  described  for  tin,  except  that  the  sheets  of  copper 
are  much  larger  and  therefore  lend  themselves  more  easily  to  moulded 
forms  such  as  ridge  rolls,  hips,  finials,  etc.  Copper  roofing  is  often 
"crimped,"  that  is,  the  surface  is  covered  by  fine  corrugations  which 
present  a  softer  and  more  even  appearance  than  the  plain  metal,  and 
conceal  the  wavy  appearance  which  plain  sheets  will  acquire. 

Slate  Roofing.  On  roofs  which  pitch  more  than  five  inches 
to  the  foot,  slates  may  be  used.  In  this  case  the  boarding  should  be 
matched  and  covered  with  tarred  paper.  On  this  surface  the  slates 
are  laid  in  layers  beginning  at  the  eaves  with  a  double  course,  and 

working  upwards  to  the  ridge.  The 
gauging  of  the  courses  is  determined 
by  the  "  head  cover,"  that  is,  the 
distance  which  the  top  of  the  slate 
is  overlapped  by  the  second  slate 
above.  (Fig.  155.)  This  lap  should 
not  be  less  than  three  inches. 

The  usual  sizes  of  slates  are 
eight  by  sixteen  and  ten  by  twenty 
inches,  and  they  run  about  T3^  to  |- 
inch  in  thickness.  Slates  should  be 
put  on  with  tinned,  galvanized,  or 
copper  nails,  two  to  each  slate, 

and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  nails  are  not  driven  in  hard  enough 
to  crack  the  slates,  and  yet  hard  enough  to  prevent  them  from  rattling. 
The  nails  should  have  large  heads  and  be  3-penny  or  4-penny  nails. 
Vvhere  slates  are  cut,  as  against  hips  or  valleys,  care  should  be  taken 
that  each  slate  receives  two  nails.  For  thick  slates  the  holes  should  be 
drilled  and  countersunk.  For  first-class  work  the  slates,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  two  feet  each  side  of  valleys  and  above  gutters,  should  be  "ren- 
dered," i.e.,  bedded  in  elastic  cement,  and  the  same  precaution  taken 
for  a  foot  in  width  against  hips,  ridges  and  all  vertical  parts.  If  slating 
is  required  for  very  flat  slopes,  the  whole  should  be  laid  in  cement. 


Fig.  155.    Head  Cover  of  Slates. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  137 

Flashings.  Valleys  in  slate  roofs  should  be  open  valleys  of 
metal  at  least  eighteen  inches  wide,  often  laid,  like  a  tin  roof,  with  the 
end  joints  locked  and  soldered  and  the  edges  securely  nailed  to  the 
roof  boarding.  Tin,  zinc,  or  copper  may  be  used,  but  copper  is  to  be 
preferred  for  valleys,  as  well  as  for  all  flashings.  Where  the  slope 
of  the  roof  changes  or  where  dormers,  chimneys,  or  other  vertical 
parts  cut  the  roof,  wide  aprons  of  metal  should  be  set  and  turned  up 
against  the  rising  wall  to  be  covered  over  by  the  wall  covering,  or 
with  lead  counter-flashings  built  into  the  brickwork.  Gables  are 
finished  by  continuous  metal  members,  run  at  least  eight  inches  under 
the  slates,  and  tacked  over  the  edge  of  the  wooden  finish,  or  cemented 
into  grooves  cut  in  stone  copings,  called  "reglets." 

A  good  practice  is  to  cap  all  flashings;  that  is,  the  metal  which 
runs  under  the  slates  is  simply  turned  up  against  the  wall,  and  a 
separate  piece  of  metal  is  wedged  and  cemented  into  the  reglet  and 
turned  dowrn  over  the  other  flashing  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  roof, 
allowing  free  movement  to  each,  which  will  be  necessary  on  account 
of  expansion  and  shrinkage.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  much  better 
to  form  the  valleys  and  hips  of  sheets  which  are  laid  in  with  each 
course,  lapping,  and  not  locked  and  soldered. 

Slates  are  sometimes  laid  on  strips  of  wood  or  battens  without 
boarding,  but  do  not  make  so  tight  a  roof;  for  fireproof  roofs,  however, 
it  has  been  common  to  secure 
the  slates  to  small  T  bars  by 
bolts  and  then  plaster  the  under 
side,  but  a  better  way  is  to  lay 
porous  terra  cotta  blocks  between 
the  irons  to  which  the  slates  may 
be  nailed  or  cemented.  A  method 

..      .      .  ,  .   ,  ,  Fig.  156.    Half-Slating. 

ot  slating   which    may    be  em- 
ployed   where   absolute   tightness  is    not   required   is    called   half- 
slating,  and  consists  in  leaving  a  space  between  the  sloping  edges  of 
each  slate,  not  exceeding  half  the  width  of  the  slate,  as  shown   in 
Fig.  156. 

In  appearance,  good  slates  should  have  an  even  color  without 
spots,  and  present  a  hard  straight  grain,  which  shines  in  certain  lights 
with  a  metallic,  silken  luster.  They  should  be  square  and  true,  and 
free  from  warped  or  nicked  edges,  and  neither  too  brittle  or  too  soft. 


147 


138  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Tiles.  The  use  of  tiles  for  roofing,  although  by  no  means  a 
modern  practice,  has  of  late  years  become  more  general  in  this  country. 
Tiles  are  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes,  the  general  principle,  in  all  cases, 
being  that  of  a  slab  of  baked  clay,  moulded  with  an  interlocking  roll 
or  rim.  Tiles  are  laid  on  battens  or  on  boarding,  as  described  for 
slates;  the  difference  being,  that  instead  of  a  double  lap  for  tightness, 
the  tightness  of  tiling  depends  upon  the  fitting  of  the  tiles  into  each 
other.  Some  of  the  modern  forms  of  tiles  are  shown  in  Fig.  157. 
With  tiles  should  be  used  copper  or  zinc  for  valleys  and  flashings; 

but  ridges  and  hips  are  gener- 
ally formed  by  tiles  of  special 
patterns.  Plain  tiles  have  long 
been  used  in  England  and  arc 
in  most  cases  found  to  be  in 

Fig.  157.    Shapes  of  Roof  Tiles. 

as    good    condition   as    when 

new.  Tiles  may  be  used  on  roofs  which  have  a  pitch  of  more  than 
22 7  degrees,  but  will  need  a  free  use  of  elastic  cement,  especially  in 
valleys,  hips,  and  ridges.  In  appearance,  tiles  should  be  of  even 
color,  free  from  fire  checks,  but  well  burned  and  non-absorbent,  of 
uniform  size  and  without  blisters,  cracks  or  warped  surfaces. 

Composition  Roofing.  For  roofs  of  a  pitch  of  f  inch  to  the 
foot  or  less,  a  composition  roofing,  made  of  several  thicknesses  of 
paper  coated  with  tar,  and  covered  with  gravel  on  top,  may  be  used 
to  advantage.  The  mode  of  constructing  a  composition  roof  will  be 
to  first  cover  the  boarding,  or,  in  case  a  fireproof  roof,  the  smooth 
top  of  the  concrete  with  dry  resin-sized  felt  with  a  lap  of  two  inches, 
tacked  only  often  enough  to  hold  it  in  place.  Over  this  are  laid  three 
full  thicknesses  of  tarred  felt,  each  sheet  lapping  two-thirds  of  its 
width  over  the  preceding  one,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a  uniform 
coat  of  pitch  mopped  on.  Upon  this  coating,  two  layers  of  tarred 
felt  are  tacked,  each  lapped  about  twenty-two  inches,  and  the  whole 
mopped  over  and  a  thick  coat  of  pitch  flowed  on.  As  the  durability 
of  the  roof  depends  upon  the  paper,  only  the  best  should  be  used, 
and  the  pitch  should  not  be  so  hot  that  it  will  destroy  the  life  of  the 
paper.  Upon  the  final  coat  of  pitch  is  spread  immediately  a  coat  of 
clean  white  gravel,  completely  covering  the  whole,  as  a  protection. 
This  composition  of  tar  and  gravel  makes  a  very  good  roof,  but  is 
suitable  only  for  roofs  up  to  a  grade  of  three-quarters  inch  to  a  foot. 


148 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


139 


If  much  steeper,  the  heavy  coat  of  tar  will  run  in  hot  weather,  and 
settling  down,  will  gradually  fill  the  gutters. 

A  composition  of  pulverized  slate  and  asphalt,  applied  in  layers 
with  felting,  has  been  placed  upon  the  market,  and  is  more  adaptable 
to  various  pitches  than  tar  and  gravel. 

The  same  precautions  regarding  the  flashing  of  vulnerable  parts 
will  be  needed  in  the  laying  of  composition  roofs  that  we  have  noted 
for  slates  or  tiles,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Plastic  Slate  roofing;  here 
the  composition  itself  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  may  be  applied  with 
a  trowel  directly  to  the  walls  or  copings  against  which  the  finish  is 
made,  and  being  of  an  elastic  and  adhesive  nature,  no  great  amount 
of  metal  flashing  is  needed. 

Inspection.  The  supervision  of  roofing  work  of  all  kinds 
deserves  the  closest  attention.  Nothing  is  more  unsatisfactory  than 


Fig.  158.    Copper  Gutter. 


Fig.  159.    Lined  Gutter. 


to  find  leaks  in  the  roof  of  a  new  building,  and  the  time  spent  in 
securing  a  first-class  job  will  be  well  spent.  Slates  and  tiles  are 
easily  broken,  and  unless  discovered  and  brought  to  notice  at  once, 
will  probably  be  overlooked  by  the  contractor.  Composition  roofs 
are  easily  slighted,  and  when  finished  give  little  indication  of  defects. 

The  only  safeguard  is  constant  watchfulness,  which  is  well 
repaid  if  the  roofs  prove  satisfactory. 

Gutters  and  Conductors.  The  best  material  for  metal  con- 
ductors is  copper,  but  galvanized  iron  and  tin  are  used  to  some  extent. 


149 


140 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  usual  form  of  a  copper  gutter  is  shown  in  Fig.  158,  but  it  is  often 
necessary  that  the  face  should  be  formed  of  mouldings  to  match  or 
form  part  of  a  stone  or  wooden  cornice.  In  this  case,  the  gutter  is 
formed  behind  the  finished  moulding.  (Fig.  159.)  The  gutter  shown 
in  Fig.  158  is  made  of  sheet  copper,  turned  over  an  iron  bar  A,  and 
moulded  to  form  the  trough,  and  made  wide  enough  to  lun  well  up 
on  the  roof  boarding,  under  the  slates  or  other  roof  covering.  Bars 
of  copper  or  galvanized  iron  are  bolted  to  the  outer  bar,  and  nailed 

and  soldered  to  the  roof.  These 
bars  should  be  given  a  short  twist, 
as  shown,  so  that  the  wash  of  the 
roof  will  drip  off  into  the  gutter, 
and  not  follow  the  strap  down  and 
soil  the  face  of  the  gutter.  In  the 
case  of  the  lined  gutter,  Fig.  159, 
the  outer  edge  of  the  metal  is 
tacked  to  the  wood  or  tucked  under 
an  iron  bar  previously  secured. 

Standing  gutters  (Fig.  160)  are 
sometimes    used    where    they    will 
not  be  objectionable  by  reason  of 
holding  back  the  snow,  but  are  often  a  source  of  trouble. 

In  a  great  many  cases  of  city  building,  especially  with  flat  roofs, 
it  is  necessary  or  convenient  that  the  outer  walls  shall  be  carried  up 
as  a  parapet,  and  the  roof  water  taken  care  of  inside  of  the  building. 
In  this  case  a  "cant-board"  is 
used,  shown  in  Fig.  161.  This 
consists  of  a  board  surface  set  in 
the  angle  of  roof  and  wall,  and 
graded  to  the  desired  outlets 
where  conductors  are  placed  in- 
side of  the  wall. 

Conductors.  In  the  case  of 
the  inside  conductors  above  re- 
ferred tO,  Cast  iron  Soil  pipes  may  FiS-  161-  Cant-Board  behind  Parapet. 

be  used;  and  these,  if  carried  down  in  a  brick  wall,  should,  if 
possible,  be  run  in  interior  walls,  and  at  any  rate  with  not  less 
than  eight  inches  of  wall  between  them  and  the  outside  air. 


Fig.  160.    Standing  Gutter  on  Roof. 


150 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


111 


The  recess  is  often  packed  with  some  non-conducting  material. 
Outside  metal  conductors  are  made  of  tin,  zinc,  galvanized  iron, 
or  copper,  the  latter  being  the  most  desirable  and  also  most  ex- 
pensive. Metal  conductors  should  be  made  in  some  form  which 
will  permit  expansion  in  case  they  should  become  frozen  solid.  A 
corrugated  round  pipe  or  an  octagonal  or  square  pipe  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Conductors  are  usually  given  an  ornamental  top  of  large 
or  small  proportions  according  to  situation. 

The  connection  between  the  conductor  and  the  gutter  is  usually 
made  by  a  bent  piece  of  pipe,  sometimes  a  continuation  of  the  con- 
ductor, and  often  a  piece  of  lead  pipe, 
shown  in  Fig.  162,  called  a  gooseneck. 
The  opening  from  the  gutter  to  the 
conductor  should  be  protected  by  a 
strainer  to  prevent  leaves,  chips,  or 
other  substances  from  choking  up  the 
pipe,  and  the  lower  end,  if  connected 
with  a  drain,  should  be  properly 
trapped. 

The  superintendence  of  gutters 
and  conductors  should  cover  the  con- 
struction of  the  trough,  if  of  wood  to 
be  lined,  to  see  that  it  pitches  in  the 
right  direction  and  to  the  required 
points.  The  weight  of  the  metal 
should  be  examined,  and  the  manner 

of  securing  both  gutters  and  conductors  be  carefully  noted.  Tin 
or  iron  surfaces  which  are  concealed  should  be  well  painted,  and  all 
soldering  well  and  faithfully  done.  The  ends  and  backs  of  metal 
gutters  must  be  examined  to  see  that  there  is  a  sufficient  width 
of  metal  to  turn  up  against  the  wall,  or  to  lie  up  on  the  roof,  eight 
to  ten  inches  being  as  little  as  it  will  be  safe  to  allow.  All  rubbish 
in  the  gutters  must  be  removed,  and  all  connections  left  tight  and 
free  from  obstructions. 

Galvanized  Iron  Work,  The  use  of  galvanized  iron  for  ex- 
terior moulded  work  and  bay  windows  has  of  late  years  become  an 
important  factor  in  building  construction.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  modern  fireproof  buildings  where  it  is  desirable  to  use  no  wood  in 


Fig.  162.    Gooseneck. 


151 


142 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


the  exterior  finish.  Belts,  cornices,  pilasters,  door  and  window  finish, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  trimmings  of  a  building,  which  in  former  times 
would  have  been  made  of  stone  or  wood,  are  now,  to  a  great  extent, 
made  of  galvanized  iron  or,  if  not  too 
costly,  of  copper.  The  structural 
treatment  of  galvanized  iron  and  cop- 
per being  about  the  same,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  our  purpose  only  to  treat 
of  the  former,  remembering  that  for 
large  surfaces  galvanized  iron  is  the 
stouter  material. 

Bay  Windows.  Perhaps  the 
greatest  use  of  galvanized  iron  at  pres- 
ent is  found  in  the  construction  of  bay 
windows.  In  this  construction  the  es- 
sentials are  lightness  and  strength,  so 
that  it  is  usual  to  construct  a  light 
framework  of  steel,  upon  which  the 
metal  finish  is  secured,  as  in  Fig.  163. 
Cornices  are  run  on  steel  or  iron  brack- 
Bay  Window. "~  etg  gecured  to  the  brick  waH  or  the 

steel  frame,  as  may  be  found  most  available.     These  brackets  are 

shaped  to  conform  roughly  to  the 

outline  of   the'  cornice,    and    it  is 

allowable  to    insert    a   reasonable 

amount  of  boarding  to  form  a  base 

for  any  broad  washes  of  metal,    as 

boarding  thus  placed,  outside  of  the 

walls,  and    completely   encased   by 

metal,  is   not   in   any  danger  from 

fire.     For  heavy  projecting  cornices, 

the  brackets    should    be    made    of 

steel  angle  irons   securely  built    into  the  wall,  or  bolted  to  it,  or  to 

the  steel  skeleton, 

Tinned  Doors  and  Shutters.  Another  use  to  which  tin  is 
frequently  put  is  the  making  of  metal-covered  doors  for  the  fire  pro- 
tection of  exposed  windows  and  other  openings.  Many  city  laws 
and  insurance  rules  require  that  all  windows  within  thirty  feet  of  a 


Fig.  163.    Framing  of  Metal 
indow. 


Fig.  104.     Fire  Doors. 


152 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  143 


source  of  danger  from  fire  shall  be  protected  by  metal-covered  shut- 
ters of  some  kind,  and  a  wooden  shutter  completely  encased  in  tin 
has  been  found  to  be  an  effective  protection.  For  protecting  openings 
in  party  or  division  walls,  the  same  kind  of  doors  are  used,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  wall,  leaving  an  air  space  between  of  about  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  164,  and  these  doors  are^usually  required 
to  be  set  in  rebated  frames,  and  hung  by  various  automatic  devices 
of  weights  and  fusible  members,  so  that  they  will  close  at  once  if 
attacked  by  fire. 

The  best  construction  of  these  doors  consists  of  a  frame  made  up 
of  pine  If  inches  in  thickness  with  flush  panels,  covered  with  tin 
tacked  on  as  described  for  roofing,  but  for  shutters  and  small  doors, 
two  thicknesses  of  f-inch  pine,  nailed  together  and  crossing  each 
other,  are  used.  As  much  care  is  necessary  to  preserve  a  tight 
interior  for  outdoor  shutters  as  for  a  roof,  as  a  small  leak  will  soon 
rot  out  the  pine  core.  The  joints  are  all  made  by  locking  and  tacking 
the  tin,  and  no  solder  can  be  used,  as  the  heat  of  a  fire  would  melt 
it  at  once. 

Skylights.  Another  use  of  metal  for  exterior  work  is  found  in 
the  framework  of  skylights.  These,  if  large,  are  made  up  of  light 


Fig.  165.    Hip  Skylight.  Fig.  166.    Gable  Skylight. 

steel  angles  or  T-irons,  and  covered  with  sheet  metal,  sometimes  with 
a  lining  in  parts  of  terra-cotta  blocks.  If  of  ordinary  size  they  will 
be  formed  up  of  heavy  sheet  metal,  usually  galvanized  iron  or  copper, 
and  in  a  variety  of  designs  suited  to  various  uses.  The  two  principal 
forms  of  skylight  are  the  hipped  skylight,  Fig.  165,  and  the  gabled 
skylight,  Fig.  166.  All  skylights  should  be  provided  with  a  ventilator 
of  some  sort  and  often  a  greater  amount  of  circulation  of  air  is  obtained 
by  building  a  vertical  wall  containing  sashes  or  louvre  blinds. 

Of  construction  similar  to  large  skylights  but  without  the  glazing 
or  louvres  in  the  walls,  are  roof  houses;  which  must  often  be  con- 
structed to  give  access  to  roofs  or  to  contain  machinery.  These, 


153 


144  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

if  above  forty  feet  from  the  sidewalk,  will  be  required  by  many  cities 
to  be  of  fireproof  construction  and  are  usually  made  of  T-irons  with 
a  terra-cotta  filling,  and  covered  with  sheet  metal.  (Fig.  167.)  A 
precaution  which  must  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  construction  is  to 
be  sure  that  the  T-irons  are  set  with  their  flange  inside  or  on  the 
opposite  side  from  the  metal  covering,  or  the  pounding  down  of  the 

seams  of  the  metal  will    be    likely   to 
PLASTE-R,   -^  ,,  .     \ 

s*ar*;    the  terra  cotta    out    or    place. 

On    account   of  this  pounding  down 
of  the  seams,  it   is  often   better  that 

Fig.  167.    Hollow-tile  Wall.  111  »        ••.   ; 

the    blocks   should    be   01   solid  terra 

cotta  and  not  hollow  tiles.  The  connection  between  these  houses 
and  the  main  roof  must  be  taken  care  of  as  described  for  roof  and 
wall  flashings,  due  allowance  always  being  made  for  expansion  of 
the  metals.  In  this  connection,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  zinc  for 
flashings  should  never  be  used  where  it  will  come  in  contact  with 
iron,  lead,  or  copper,  as  this  contact  will  produce  voltaic  action 
which  will  finally  destroy  the  zinc. 

FRAMING  AND  FLOORING. 

Frame.  The  exterior  wood  framing  of  city  buildings  will  in 
most  cases  be  confined  to  roofs,  since  no  exterior  walls  within  the 
building  limits  of  modern  cities  are  allowed  to  be  constructed  of  wood. 
Wooden  roofs  covered  with  slates  or  other  fire-resisting  materials  are 
allowed,  however,  in  many  cities,  up  to  a  certain  height  above  the 
sidewalk.  The  only  difference  which  we  shall  find  in  this  wooden 
construction,  from  the  suburban  house  considered  in  Part  I.  will  be, 
that  usually  the  spaces  to  be  covered  are  larger  and  the  roofs  must  be 
consequently  of  heavier  timber. 

Floors.  The  same  thing  will  be  true  of  floors,  and,  from  the 
variety  of  uses  to  which  the  buildings  will  be  put,  from  comparatively 
light  buildings  to  heavy  stores  or  warehouses,  a  great  range  of  floor 
construction  will  be  required.  For  brick  dwellings,  the  floor  con- 
struction will  differ  little  from  the  wooden  house  already  described, 
the  principal  difference  being  the  greater  spans,  and  consequently 
heavier  timbers,  and  also  the  fact  that  the  outside  bearings  are  taken 
by  the  brick  walls  instead  of  wooden  girts.  The  joists  in  this  case 
should  run  onto  the  wall  at  least  four  inches  and  should  be  bevelled 


154 


RESIDENCE  AT  CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 

Frost  &  Granger,  Architects,  Chicago,  111. 


• 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


145 


at  the  end,  so  that,  in  case  of  fife,  the  floors  may  fall  without  destroy- 
ing the  wall.     (Fig.  168.)     The  joists  must  be  anchored  to  the  walls 
about  every  five  feet  with  iron  anchors  secured  to  the  joist  at  the  side, 
and  low  down,  to  allow   the   joist   to 
fall  out  if  burned.     These  ties  should 
be  continued    across    the   building  by 
tying  the  inner   ends  of  the  joists  to- 
gether and  putting  an   anchor   in  the 
opposite  wall,    in    as    nearly  a   direct 
line  across  the  house  as  possible.     All 
large  timbers,  such  as  girders,  should 
have  anchors  and  should  rest  on  cast- 
iron   wall   plates.      Partitions    should 


Fig.  168.    Bevelling  of  Joists. 


have  a  stud  set  close  against  the  brick 

wall   and  bolted  to    it,    and  all  large 

openings,  such  as  stair  wells    or    skylights,    should    have    headers 

hung  to  the  trimmers  by  stirrup-irons  or  patent  hangers,  shown  in 

Fig.  169. 

If  there  are  openings  in  the  brick  walls  which  come  so  near  to  the 

bottom  of  the  joists  that  an  arch  cannot  be  turned,  a  header  should 

be  cut  in  or  a  steel  beam 
inserted  in  the  wall.  Joists 
are  sometimes  hung  to  the 
walls  by  hangers,  and  do 
not  run  into  the  wall  at  all; 
but  while  this  preserves  the 
full  strength  of  the  wall,  it 

-       Fig.  169.    Joist  Hangers.  does  not  make  SQ  gOQ(J  a  tje 

and  is  not  generally  done.  The  wall  plate  of  a  brick  dwelling 
will  usually  be  made  of  a  plank  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and 
secured  by  f-inch  bolts  which  are  built  into  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  170. 
These  bolts  should  run  at  least  twenty  inches  down  into  the  wall, 
and  have  a  large  washer  plate  at  their  lower  end.  When  the  wall 
has  been  brought  to  the  required  height,  the  plate  is  bored  with  holes 
to  fit  the  bolts,  and  a  nut  and  washer  screwed  on.  Over  the  plate  the 
rafters  are  notched,  and  the  roof  constructed  as  for  a  wooden  house. 
Store  and  Office  Floors.  In  the  construction  of  stores, 
warehouses,  or  office-  buildings,  with  wooden  floors,  the  use  of  parti- 


155 


146 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  170.    Plate  Bolt. 


tions  for  carrying  the  floor  should  be  avoided,  and  columns  and 
girders  substituted.  The  reason  for  this  is  that,  under  heavy  loads, 
the  studding  will  often  spring  enough  to  crack  the  plastering,  and 
besides,  the  occupancy  of  this  class  of 
buildings  by  different  tenants  will  require 
numerous  changes  in  the  partitions  from 
time  to  time.  The  large  girders  and 
posts  also  offer  greater  resistance  to  the 
action  of  fire,  and  permit  of  fewer  con- 
cealed spaces.  Many  city  laws  require 
the  use  of  brick  walls,  trusses,  or  col- 
umns and  girders  for  support,  if  floor 
spans  exceed  thirty  feet,  and  this  is  a 
good  rule  to  observe. 

In  establishing  a  line  of  columns 
and  girders,  the  columns  should  be 
spaced  about  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  apart  for  wooden  girders, 
but  can  be  brought  up  to  twenty-five  feet  for  the  span  of  steel  girders. 
If  solid  wooden  posts  are  used,  they  will  last  better  if  bored  from  end 
to  end  through  the  center  with  a  hole  about  an  inch  and  a  half,  with 
a  half-inch  hole  bored  into  the  center  at  the  top  and  bottom.  This 
allows  a  circulation  of  air  through  the  center  of  the  post,  and  guards 
against  dry  rot,  especially  if  the  post  is  not  thoroughly  dry  when  set. 
This  central  boring  should  be  done 
from  one  end,  and,  if  it  comes  more 
than  an  inch  out  of  center  at  either  end, 
it  will  weaken  the  post  and  should  be 
cause  for  rejection. 

All  wooden  posts  carrying  girders 
and  posts  above,  should  have  an  iron  cap 
with  side  plates  to  receive  the  girders, 
Fig.  171,  allowing  the  post  above  to  be 
supported  directly  by  the  post  below, 
and  not  to  stand  on  the  girder.  This 
must  be  done  for  two  reasons.  One  reason  is,  if  the  girder  ran 
over  the  top  of  the  post  and  the  post  above  were  set  upon  it,  the 
natural  shrinkage  of  the  girders  would  be  multiplied  by  each 
succeeding  floor,  and  in  a  building  of  four  or  five  stories, 


Fig.  171.    Steel  Post  Cap. 


156 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


147 


this  might  amount  to  two  or  three  inches,  so  that  the  upper  floor 
beams  at  their  inner  end  would  be  that  much  lower  than  the  outer 
ends  which  arc  supported  b\  the  rigid  masonry.  Another  reason  is, 
that  the  crushing  strength  of  the  girder 
in  its  longitudinal  position  is  not  so  great 
as  the  post  standing  on  end,  and  it  might 
be  unable  to  support  the  accumulated 
weight  of  several  stories.  This  support 
was  formerly  obtained  entirely  by  the 
use  of  cast-iron  pintles,  Fig.  172,  which 
are  cast  with  top  and  bottom  plates  to  fit 
the  posts,  the  weight  being  transmitted 
by  the  cross-shaped  metal.  This  is  an 
effective  method,  but  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  more  modern  steel  caps. 
The  bearing  of  the  girders  should  be 
at  least  five  inches  on  either  end,  and 


Fig.  172.    Cast-iron  Pintle. 


a  box  hanger  of  some  kind  should  be  used  to  support  the  wall 
end  of  the  girder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  173. 

Iron  and  Steel  Supports.  For  large  spans  and  heavy  weights 
it  will  be  often  necessary  to  use  iron  or  steel  columns  with  wooden 
girders.  If  cast-iron  columns  are  used,  they  should  not  be  made  with 
a  shell  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick.  This  is  necessary 
on  account  of  the  danger  of  an  unequal 
thickness  in  the  shell  of  the  column.  To 
obtain  the  hollow  column,  the  casting 
must  be  made  about  a  "core,"  and 
although  this  core  is  accurately  centered, 
there  is  danger  of  its  being  displaced  by 
the  pouring  in  of  the  molten  iron,  as, 
being  of  a  lighter  composition,  it  will 
have  a  tendency  to  "float."  This  may 
result  in  an  added  thickness  to  one  side 

of  the  shell  of  the  column  and  a  corresponding  lack  of  metal  on  the 
opposite  side.  To  guard  against  this  defect,  cast-iron  columns 
should  always  be  tested  by  boring  a  small  hole  on  opposite  sides, 
and  if  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  thickness  of  shell  is  wanting  in  any 
column  it  should  be  rejected.  The  outer  surface  of  cast  iron  should 


Fig.  173.    Box  Anchor  on  Wall. 


157 


148 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


be  smooth  and  clean,  with  sharp  angles;  and  all  projections,  such 
as  lugs,  caps,  or  bases,  should  be  closely  examined  to  detect  the  pres- 
ence of  cracks  which  may  occur  at  these  points. 

Cap  and  Base.  The  top  and  bottom  of  all  cast-iron  columns 
should  be  turned  off  in  a  lathe  to  insure  a  bearing  at  right  angles 
to  the  axis,  and  plates  should  be  used  to  increase  the  bearing.  These 
plates  are  cast  with  a  ring  or  with  projections  to  hold  the  column 
in  place  against  movement,  and  they  should  be  planed  to  a  perfectly 
even,  bearing.  The  cap  must  never  be  spread  out  as  a  casting, 
Fig.  174,  but  should  carry  up  the  line  of  the  column  itself,  all  orna- 
mentation requiring  a  great  projection  being  cast  separately  and 
fastened  on,  as  in  Fig.  175.  This  allows  the  shaft  of  the  column 
to  run  straight  up  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  column  above,  while  the 


Fig.  174.    Improper  Casting  of  Column.       Fig.  175.    Proper  Application  of  Ornament. 

girder  is  borne  by  the  projections  cast  upon  the  column.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  cap  to  the  top  of  the  column  should  be  about  four 
inches  greater  than  the  depth  of  the  girder  to  allow  room  for  bolting 
the  columns  together. 

With  a  wooden  girder,  the  ends  of  the  timber  must  be  cut  out 
to  fit  the  diameter  of  the  column  (Fig.  176),  and  the  girders  must 
be  tied  across  the  cap  by  stout  straps  on  each  side.  If  steel  beams 
are  used,  they  can  be  tapped  to  the  column  plate  or  strapped  together 
around  the  column. 

Pipe  Columns.  Heavy  wrought-iron  pipe  is  often  used  for 
columns,  a  cap  and  base  being  sometimes  cast  and  screwed  on  by  a 
thread;  and  a  patented  column  formed  by  filling  the  pipe  with 
cement,  may  be  obtained  ready  fitted  with  cap  and  base. 


168 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


149 


Steel  Columns  and  Girders.  Where  the  spacing  of  columns 
is  required  to  be  increased  beyond  the  safe  bearing  of  wooden  girders, 
steel  girders  may  be  used.  These  usually  consist  of  one  or  more 
steel  I-beams,  and  they  may  be  used  with  cast-iron  columns  or  with 
steel  columns.  With  cast-iron  columns,  the  same  methods  will 
suffice  as  in  the  use  of  wooden  girders,  but  with  the  use  of  steel  columns 
a  new  method  of  construction 
arises,  which  it  will  be  better  to 
consider  later  in  connection  with 
steel  framing.  It  may  be  properly 
said  here,  however,  that  the  use  of 
steel  girders  and  steel  columns, 
even  if  the  floor  timbers  are  of 
wood,  is  to  be  recommended  for 
high  buildings  or  for  buildings 
which  are  subjected  to  the  jar  of 
machinery;  the  reason  for  this 
being  in  the  greater  rigidity  which  is 
possible  in  the  girder  and  'column 
connections,  and  the  greater  ease 


176.    Seating  of  Girder  on 
Column. 


with  which  this  construction  can  be  braced. 

Floor  Beams.     The  use  of  wood  or  steel  for  girders  will  require 
different  methods  of  construction.     If  wooden  girders  are  used  they 


1 


Fig.  177.    Iron  Dog. 


Fig.  178.    Spiking  of  Joists. 


may  be  set  wholly  or  partially  below  the  floor  timbers,  or  flush  with 
them.  If  there  are  no  objections  to  dropping  the  girder  below, 
this  is  the  simplest  and  strongest  construction.  In  this  case,  the 
floor  beams  should  be  sized  down  on  the  girders  to  maintain  a  per- 


159 


150 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


fectly  level  floor  line,  and  a  full  bearing  should  be  obtained  for  each 
timber.  Where  the  girders  are  large  the  timbers  may  be  brought 
to  butt  against  each  other  upon  the  girder;  and  they  should  be 
secured  end  to  end  by  iron  dogs  which  turn  down  into  each  timber. 
(Fig.  177.)  For  small  girders  and  light  timbers,  it  will  be  better  to 
let  the  timbers  lap  close  and  be  spiked  to  each  other,  as  in  Fig.  178. 
When  the  girders  are  near  together,  and  the  timbers  long  enough 
to  span  two  divisions,  a  rigid  floor  may  be  obtained  by  "breaking 
joints"  with  the  floor  timbers  every  five  or  six  feet. 

Flush  Framing.     If  the  girder  is  to  be  framed  flush  with  the 
timbers,  the  use  of  stirrup  irons  or  patent  hangers  is  recommended, 

as  preserving  the  full  strength  of 
the  girder.  In  this  case  the  tim- 
bers should  be  brought  as  nearly 
opposite  as  possible,  and  iron 
dogs  long  enough  to  reach  over 
the  girder  and  drive  down  into 
opposite  timbers  should  be  used. 
(Fig.  179.) 

If  the  girder  is  deeper  than 
the  floor  timbers  it  may  be  set 
flush  on  top,  and  smaller  pieces  of  hard  pine  or  an  angle  iron  may 
be  bolted  to  the  lower  part  to  receive  the  floor  timbers,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  180. 

Crowning.  All  floor  timbers  having  a  span  of  more  than  six- 
teen feet  should  be  crowned,  that  is,  the  top  of  the  joist  is  cut  to  the 
shape  of  an  arc  of  a  circle,  having  a 
rise  of  one-quarter  inch  to  every  six- 
teen feet  of  span.  This  is  necessary 
to  allow  for  the  ordinary  sag  of  the 
timber,  so  that  a  level  floor  may  result. 
Steel  Girders.  With  the  use 
of  steel  girders  new  considerations 
will  arise.  If  a  single  beam  is  set  entirely  below  the  floor  timbers, 
it  will  give  a  better  bearing  if  the  timbers  lap  and  spike  to  each  other. 
With  two  or  more  beams,  the  timbers  may  be  brought  end  to  end 
as  on  the  heavy  wooden  girder.  If  the  steel  girder  is  set  flush  with 
the  beams,  they  may  be  cut  so  as  to  run  into  the  trough  formed  by 


Fig.  179.    Hanging  of  Joists. 


Fig.  180.     Wooden  Girder  and 
Joists. 


160 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


151 


Fig.  181.    Stirrup  Iron  and 
Steel  Girder. 


the  flanges  of  the  beam,  but  should  be  supported  by  stirrup-irons 
or  hangers,  Fig.  181,  as  the  sloping  flange  of  the  steel  beam  does 
not  afford  a  good  bearing.  If  the  steel  beam  is  deeper  than  the 
floor  timbers,  a  common  method  is  to  bolt  a 
timber  to  each  side  of  the  beam  for  a  bear- 
ing; and  of  course  an  angle  bar  can  be 
used  in  the  same  manner.  (Fig.  182.)  In 
any  case,  the  floor  beam  should  be  fastened 
so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  slipping  out  of 
the  hanger.  Most  of  the  patent  hangers  have  a  lug,  or  bolt,  to 
secure  the  timber  in  place,  and  where  timbers  come  opposite,  com- 
mon iron  dogs  turning  down  into  each  timber  may  be  used. 

Slow  Burning  and  Mill  Construction.  The  use  of  the 
methods  of  heavy  timbering  just  described,  with  floors  of  matched 
or  splined  plank,  and  with  no  wood  partitions  or  furrings  enclosing 
hollow  spaces,  constitutes  what  is  generally  termed  slow-burning 

construction.  To  obtain  the 
best  results  from  this  method 
of  construction,  wooden  gird- 
ers sh.ould  always  be  set 
flush  with  the  floor  timbers 

Fig.  182.    Connection  of  Wooden  Joists  and        on    toP>   as   tne    dropped    gird- 
er with  the   space  above  will 

permit  flames  to  lap  around  the  timber  and  it  will  be  more  quickly 
consumed  than  if  it  is  flush  with  the  rest  of  the  floor  beams.  Greater 
protection  is  obtained  by  protecting  the  wood  with  plaster  on  metal 
laths,  leaving  no  air  spaces  between  the  plaster  and  the  wood. 

flil I  Construction,  as  its  name  denotes,  should  properly  belong 
to  the  particular  methods  of  construction  which  have  been  devised 
for  resistance  of  fire,  and  the  sustaining  of  the  loads  and  shocks  of 
machinery,  to  which  manufacturing  buildings  are  particularly  sub- 
jected. This  requires  primarily  the  disposition  of  the  timber  and 
plank  in  solid  masses  exposing  the  least  number  of  corners  to  the 
action  of  fire,  of  separating  the  floors  by  fireproof  stops,  and  auto- 
matic arrangements  of  closing  hatchways  or  elevator  openings,  and 
of  enclosing  stairways  in  incombustible  partitions. 

The  typical  construction  employed  for  the  mills  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  only  form  acceptable  to  the  insurance  companies  of 


X61 


152 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  183.    Effect  of  not  bevel- 
ling ends  of  Joists. 


that  section,  consists  of  posts  at  least  10  X  10  inches,  spaced  about 
eight  feet  apart  in  the  length  of  the  mill  and  twenty-four  or  twenty-five 
feet  across.  Instead  of  a  line  of  girders  running  lengthwise  over 
the  line  of  posts,  the  floor  beams  are  laid  across  the  mill  on  the 
tops  of  the  posts.  These  beams  are  usually  12  X  14  inches,  or 
two  pieces  of  6  X  14  inches,  bolted  together  with  an  air  space  be- 
tween. The  wall  end  of  these  timbers  should  rest  on  iron  plates 
and  the  ends  be  bevelled  off  and  secured 
only  at  the  bottom,  so  that  they  may  fall  out 
easily  if  burned,  and  not  pull  down  the  wall. 
(Fig.  183.)  These  timbers  are  supported 
by  iron  post  caps  or  pintles,  as  already  de- 
scribed. The  flooring  consists  of  a  layer  of 
three-inch  planks,  not  more  than  ten  inches 
wide,  splined  together  and  blind-nailed; 
and  it  should  be  long  enough  to  span  two 
spaces,  breaking  joints  every  four  or  five 
feet.  All  of  this  construction  is  usually  of 
Georgia  pine. 

The  upper  floor  is  generally  made  of  hardwood  such  as  maple 
or  birch,  and  this  is  laid  with  square  edges  over  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  paper,  each  layer  being  mopped  with  tar,  asphalt,  or  similar 
material;  or  sometimes  a  layer  of  plaster  is  spread  between  the 
upper  and  under  floors. 

This  construction  may  be  adapted  to  the  use  of  mercantile 
or  office  buildings,  but  the  general  requirements  of  this  class  of 
buildings  will  not  admit  of  the  posts  occurring  so  often  as  every  eight 
feet.  This  necessitates  the  use  of  a  girder  and  intermediate  beams. 
If  these  beams  are  spaced  four  or  five  feet  apart,  it  will  permit  the  use 
of  two-inch  plank  which  may  be  tongued  instead  of  splined.  With  this 
increased  spacing  of  the  posts",  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  iron  or  ste^l 
posts  for  a  building  four  or  more  stories  in  height;  and  if  the  posti, 
are  more  than  fourteen  feet  apart,  it  will  be  cheaper  and  better  to  use 
steel  beams  for  girders.  In  this  case,  all  weight-bearing  metal 
must  be  protected  by  at  least  an  inch  of  plaster  or  other  fireproof 
material. 

Partitions.  Where  slow  burning  or  mill  construction  is  used 
for  the  floors  of  a  building,  the  partitions  should  be  made  of  solid 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  153 


plank  plastered  on  both  sides  on  metal  lathing,  or  else  of  light  steel 
framing  with  metal  lath,  and  plaster. 

Roofs.  The  same  methods  of  framing  may  be  employed  for 
the  roofs  as  for  the  floors,  but  lighter  timbers  can  be  used,  set  to  the 
required  pitch,  with  a  tar  and  gravel  or  metal  roof.  Steep  pitched 
roofs  may  also  be  constructed  in  the  same  way,  trussing  the  timbers 
if  the  span  requires  it. 

Supervision.  The  supervision  of  the  framing  of  floors  of 
brick  buildings  will  call  for  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the 
superintendent,  as  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  follow  closely  the  work 
of  the  carpenters,  but  the  fact  that  the  mason-work  is  being  carried 
along  at  the  same  time,  by  a  different  set  of  workmen,  will  necessitate 
a  great  deal  of  forethought  in  order  to  bring  the  different  parts 
together  at  the  proper  time. 

The  anchoring  of  floors  properly,  and  at  the  proper  time,  will 
require  constant  attention,  and  the  setting  of  plates,  the  building- 
in  of  bolts  and  hangers,  and  the  leveling-up  of  floors  and  walls  to 
their  relative  positions,  will  require  harmonious  action  between  the 
mason  and  the  carpenter. 

In  heavy  framing,  careful  watching  will  be  necessary,  to  see 
that  proper  connections  are  made  between  post,  girders  and  floor 
beams,  and  that  all  necessary  ties,  straps  and  bolts  are  set  and 
tightened. 

If  trusses  occur,  they  should  be  strained  up  tightly  when  built 
and  kept  tightly  strained  as  long  as  there  are  any  workmen  remain- 
ing at  the  building,  as  the  shrinkage  of  the  timbers  will  often  loosen 
the  joints  and  allow  sagging  to  occur. 

Flooring.  As  soon  as  the  floor  timbers  are  in  place,  it  is  gen- 
erally the  custom  to  lay  down  a  rough  floor.  This  makes  a  platform 
upon  which  subsequent  operations  are  carried  on  and  also  forms 
the  foundation  for  the  upper  or  finished  floor.  The  character  of 
this  rough  lining  floor  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  floor  con- 
struction. If  the  floors  are  of  slow-burning  or  mill  construction 
with  the  beams  far  apart,  plank  must  be  used  of  varying  thickness 
according  to  the  spacing  of  the  beams.  For  a  spacing  of  four  or  five 
feet,  2-inch  plank  may  be  used,  but  from  five  to  eight  feet  of  space 
will  require  3-inch  plank.  This  planking  should  be  matched  or 
splined  and  securely  nailed  to  every  bearing,  and  it  will  add  to  the 


163 


154  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


rigidity  of  the  building  if  laid  diagonally,  besides  giving  an  even 
surface  upon  which  to  lay  the  finished  floor.  For  the  under  floors 
of  dwellings  or  other  buildings  of  ordinary  light  construction,  an 
under  floor  of  f-inch  hemlock  or  pine  is  generally  used  without 
matching.  The  boards  should  be  mill-planed  to  an  even  thickness 
and  as  narrow  as  can  be  readily  obtained.  The  under  flooring  should 
be  securely  nailed  to  every  bearing,  and  should  be  laid  close  to  the 
exterior  walls,  covering  the  floor  surface  completely  with  no  large 
holes  or  wide  crevices. 

Upper  Floors.  The  laying  of  upper  floors  should  be  delayed 
until  the  finish  of  the  rooms  has  been  completed,  up  to  the  hanging 
of  the  doors.  For  floors  that  are  to  be  carpeted,  spruce  or  pine 
is  generally  used,  and  this  may  be  laid  without  matching.  For 
floors  not  carpeted,  hardwood  flooring  should  be  used,  and  the 
boards  should  be  sawed  into  narrow  widths  and  matched  and  blind- 
nailed. 

For  floors  of  kitchens,  offices  or  other  places  where  much  wear 
will  come,  and  where  the  expense  of  oak  or  other  fine  woods  is  not 
desirable,  floors  of  rift  Georgia  pine  may  well  be  used.  Birch  and 
maple  also  make  a  good  floor  and  have  good  wearing  qualities. 
For  parlors,  halls,  and  for  parquetry  flooring,  oak  is  used  to  a  great 
extent,  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other  fancy  woods.  All 
hardwood  flooring  should  be  quarter-sawed.  The  usual  thickness 
of  flooring  stock  is  -J-inch,  but  for  stores,  factories,  or  public  buildings, 
lg-inch  or  1^-inch  stock  should  be  used. 

Stock.  Spruce  and  pine  floorings  are  carried  in  two  grades — 
first  and  second  quality.  First  quality  is  free  from  knots,  while 
second  quality  will  have  small  and  tight  knots. 

Hard  pine  flooring  is  rated  as  rift,  or  "quarter-sawed,"  first  and 
second  clear,  and  star.  Only  rift  hard  pine  should  be  used  for  a 
good  floor,  as  "slash"  boards  will  split  and  sliver.  Oak  flooring 
should  always  be  quarter-sawed,  and  this  as  well  as  all  hard  woods 
should  be  used  in  narrow  widths,  1\  inches  being  as  wide  as  should 
be  used  for  first-class  work.  First-class  flooring  is  usually  grooved 
on  the  under  side  to  lie  close  to  the  Under  floor  and  should  be  matched 
and  blind-nailed  for  good  work.  For  offices  or  factories,  square- 
edged  boards  will  wear  better  and  admit  of  renewal  more  easily  than 
matched  flooring.  Floors  laid  diagonally  or  across  the  under  floor- 


164 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


155 


Fig.  184.    Old  Floor  Prepared  for  Tiling. 


ing  will  lie  smoother  and  remain  closer,  than  if  laid  the  same  way  as 
the  under  floor.  If  the  added  stiffness  is  desired  for  mill  floors, 
and  it  is  not  convenient  to  lay  the  floor  diagonally,  a  degree  of  stiff- 
ness may  be  gained  by  laying  the  floor  square  and  nailing  it  in  diag- 
onal rows. 

Paper  and  Deafening.  Between  the  upper  and  under  floors, 
paper  should  be  laid,  and  a  deafening  of  plaster,  quilt  or  mineral 
w7ood  may  be  used.  For  mill  or  factory  floors,  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  paper  should  be  used,  mopped  with  tar  or  asphalt. 

Tiling  and  Mosaic.  Where  tiling  or  mosaic  is  used  for  the 
upper  floor  in  wooden  construction,  special  preparation  will  be 

needed  to  obtain  a  thick  bed • 

of  concrete  or  bricks  under 
the  tiles.  To  do  this  the 
rough  floor  must  be  let  down 
between  the  timbers,  and  sup- 
ported by  strips  nailed  to  the 
sides  of  the  floor  beams,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  184.  A  bed  of  at  least  4  inches  should  be  provided, 
and  the  beams  should  be  cut  off  to  a  bevel  on  top  as  shown.  Even 

then  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
tiles  or  mosaic  to  develop  a  crack 
over  the  beams,  and  so  metal  lath- 
ing is  often  used  to  prevent  the 
concrete  bed  from  cracking.  This 
preparation  is  necessary  for  old 
floors-  which  are  to  be  tiled,  or 
where  the  tile  floor  covers  only  a 
portion  of  a  new  floor,  but  when 
the  whole  of  a  new  floor  is  to  be 
covered  with  tiles,  and  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent,  it  will  be  better 
to  set  the  floor  timbers  enough 
below  the  finished  level  to  obtain 
Narrow  boards  should  be  used  laid 


Fig.  185.    Floor    and  Wall  Tiles. 


the  same  result.     (Fig.  185.) 
^-inch  open  to  allow  for  swelling. 

To  prevent  the  moisture  in  the  concrete  from  being  absorbed 
too  quickly  by  the  boarding,  and  to  guard  against  dripping,  two 


165 


156  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

thicknesses  of  tarred  paper  may  be  spread  over  the  whole  surface 
before  the  bed  is  laid,  and  the  use  of  corrugated  metal  lathing  is 
sometimes  advisable.  The  preparation  of  wooden  walls  for  tiling 
is  more  simple.  Here  it  is  only  necessary  to  provide  a  firm  and 
continuous  sheet  of  plaster  upon  which  the  tiles  are  bedded.  This 
may  be  done  by  cutting  in  between  the  studs,  horizontal  pieces  two 
inches  by  the  width  of  the  studding  and  about  a  foot  apart,  upon 
which  metal  lathing  is  nailed;  and  a  rough  bed  of  cement  mortar  is 
spread  upon  this,  allowing  room  for  the  proper  bedding  of  the  tiles. 
(Fig.  185.)  Hair  should  be  used  in  the  cement  mortar  on  wire 
lathing. 

Tiling.  Tiles  of  various  patterns  and  materials  are  used  to  a 
large  extent  for  floors  and  walls  of  bathrooms,  corridors  and  counting 
rooms.  For  fireplaces,  and  walls  and  floors  of  bathrooms,  where 
the  tiles  are  not  subjected  to  hard  wear,  a  plain  glazed  tile  makes 
a  clean  and  satisfactory  job,  but  where  much  wear  will  come,  the 
hard,  vitreous,  unglazed  tiles  will  make  a  better  wearing  surface. 

The  foundation  for  tiles  should  be  prepared  from  the  best  Port- 
land cement,  and  should  be  perfectly  level,  and  allowed  to  thoroughly 
harden*  before  the  tiles  are  laid.  The  foundation  for  both  floor  and 
wall  tiles  should  be  thoroughly  brushed,  to  remove  all  dust  and 
other  foreign  substance,  and  then  well  wet  before  applying  the  cement 
bedding.  Portland  cement  should  be  used  for  setting  floor  or  wall 
tiles,  and  for  grouting  the  floors;  and  the  best  Keene's  cement  for 
filling  the  joints  in  wall  tiling.  Clean  sharp  sand  well  screened 
should  be  used  in  equal  parts  with  the  cement  for  floors,  and  with 
two  parts  sand  to  one  of  cement  for  walls.  The  tiles  must  be  thor- 
oughly soaked  in  water  before  setting. 

Floor  tiles  are  set  by  being  firmly  pressed  into  the  mortar  bed 
and  then  tamped  until  perfectly  level.  When  the  bed  is  sufficiently 
set,  the  joints  are  grouted  with  pure  cement  and  cleaned  off  with 
sawdust  or  fine  shavings. 

Wall  tiles  are  set  by  two  methods  called  "floating"  and  "butter- 
ing." In  floating  the  tiles,  a  portion  of  the  bed  is  spread  on  the 
wall,  and  the  tile  placed  in  position  and  tamped  until  firmly  united. 
Buttering  consists  of  spreading  the  mortar  on  the  back  of  each  tile, 
which  is  then  placed  against  the  prepared  wall  and  tapped  gently 
until  it  is  united  with  the  bed.  When  the  tiles  are  all  set,  by  either 


166 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  157 


process,  the  joints  are  carefully  washed  out  and  filled  with  Keene's 
cement.  When  fixtures  are  to  be  secured  to  the  walls,  as  for  plumbing 
etc.,  a  wood  piece  should  be  secured  to  the  wall,  flush  with  the  rough 
bed,  and  the  tiles  laid  over  it,  to  be  bored  for  the  fastenings. 

Floor  Finish.  For  halls  and  corridors,  mosaic,  tile,  orterrazza 
floors  are  to  be  preferred,  but  for  offices,  nothing  is  better  than  a 
wooden  floor.  Rift  hard  pine,  birch,  maple,  or  oak  make  good 
wearing  floors,  and  when  laid  on  sleepers  securely  bedded  in  the 
concrete,  with  no  chance  for  4he  air  to  get  beneath  the  floor,  are  in 
little  danger  of  being  consumed  by  fire.  Wooden  floors  should  be 
matched  and  tightly  laid,  and  treated  with  as  little  oil  or  inflammable 
varnish  as  possible,  depending  upon  constant  care,  for  preservation, 
rather  than  a  great  amount  of  finishing. 

Counters.  For  banking  rooms  and  corporation  offices,  counters 
of  greater  or  less  extent  and  elaboration  will  be  required.  These 
are  usually  made  of  wood,  but  may  be  constructed  of  other  materials, 
a  wooden  top  being  always  preferred.  The  use  of  enameled  bricks 
or  tiles  for  the  base  of  the  counters  with  a  wooden  top  makes  a  solid 
structure,  while  polished  marble  may  be  used  of  almost  any  degree  of 
expense. 

Grille  Work.  An  important  feature  of  a  modern  building 
is  the  grille  work  made  of  various  metals  and  used  for  protection, 
decoration,  or  effect  to  a  great  extent.  For  exterior  ornament  or 
protection,  grilles  will  be  found 
principally  in  door  or  window 
openings,  and  in  this  applica- 
tion, wrought-iron  grilles  are 
generally  used.  Window 
grilles  are  generally  set  in  the 

Fig.  186.    Usual  Position  of  Grille. 

depth   of  the    stone    or  brick 

jamb  of  the  window,  as  in  Fig.  186,  but  are  sometimes  put  over  the 
opening  on  the  outside  face  of  the  wall.  This  is  usual  if  the  window 
is  small.  (Fig-  187.)  The  fastenings  of  grilles  should  be  secure 
and  lasting;  and  they  should  in  general  be  set  in  a  rim  of  iron 
with  hinges  and  locks,  so  as  to  allow  easy  access  for  cleaning  the 
windows.  (Fig.  188). 

Door  grilles  are  sometimes  glazed  on  the  back  with  plate  glass, 
so  as  to  form  a  weatherproof  door  having  the  effect  of  the  grille, 


167 


158 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


and  when  this  is  to  be  done,  care  must  be  taken  to  bed  the  glass  care- 
fully, as  the  expansion  and  the  jar  of  closing  are  likely  to  crack  the 
glass. 

The  interior  use  of  grilles  will  be  found  chiefly  in  the  protection 
of  elevators  or  lifts,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  public  from  the  working 
portions  of  offices  and  banks.  Elevator  grilles  are  generally  made  of 
wrought  iron,  and  they  should  be  at  least  7  feet  6  inches  high  on  the 
sides  and  carried  from  floor  to  ceiling  in  front  of  the  doors  of  the  car; 
and  all  portions  within  easy  reach  of 
the  public,  where  there  is  danger  that 
the  hand  might  pass  through,  to  be 
injured  by  the  moving  parts  of  the 
elevator  or  counterweight,  should  be 
of  a  fine  pattern  or  protected  by  fine 
netting.  The  main  support  of  the  ele- 
vator grilles  will  be  found  in  the  corner 
posts  which  support  the  elevators,  or  the 


Fig.  187.    Grille  Outside  of  Window- 


Fig. 


Hingeing  of  Grille. 


stairs  which  often  enclose  them  on  three  sides,  and  the  pattern  of 
the  grille  work  should  be  stout  enough  to  stand  rigid  between  these 
supports.  Wrought-iron  grille  work  of  all  kinds  should  be  carefully 
inspected  to  see  that  the  scrolls  are  well  turned,  that  welding  or 
riveting  is  neatly  done,  and  that  the  whole  section  is  tightly  put  to- 
gether. Cast-iron  patterns  must  be  inspected  for  smoothness  and 
clearness  of  the  ornamental  parts,  and  an  even  thickness  of  metal 
should  be  required  for  all  similar  parts. 

The  counter  and  office  grilles  are  often  made  of  thin  steel,  bent 
into  various  patterns  and  riveted  together,  and  this  construction 
is  also  used  for  elevator  cars  where  lightness  is  a  valuable  feature. 


168 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


159 


Fig.  189.     Door  of  Fireproof  Vault. 


These  grilles  are  finished  by  plating  with  copper,  bronze,  nickel,  or 
other  metal,  and  can  be  given  almost  any  desired  tone. 

While  these  grilles  do  not  compare  in  appearance  with  wrought- 
iron  grilles,  they  are  less  expensive,  and  quickly  made,  and  may  be 
readily  obtained  of  the  manufacturers  in  a  variety  of  stock  patterns. 
Fireproof  Vaults.      All  banking  and   large  commercial  offices 
require  a  fireproof  vault  of  some  sort,  for  the  preservation  of  valuable 
records  as  well  as  money. 
These  vaults  in  a  build- 
ing of  ordinary  construc- 
tion are  easily  made  of 
bricks  and  steel   beams. 
The  vault,  in   principle, 
consists  of  a  thick  wall 
of  bricks  with  proper  air- 
space and  covering,  en- 
closing a  space  of  greater 
or  less  extent,    access  to 
which    is     given    by    a 
double  set  of  doors,  sep- 
arated by  the  width  of  the  wall,  at  least,  and  securely  fastened  from 
without.     To  withstand  the   effect    of    a  conflagration,  the   walls 

should  be  built  with  an  inner  wall 
of  eight  inches  of  brick;  then  an 
air  space  of  four  inches  and  an 
outer  wall  of  at  least  eight  inches 
of  brick,  with  both  walls  tied  to- 
gether across  the  air  space,  which 
should  be  ventilated  top  and  bottom. 
This  gives  a  wall  twenty  inches  in 
thickness  and  allows  a  door  to  be 
made  with  the  outer  valve  in  one  leaf 
and  an  inner  door  in  two  parts,  these 
parts  opening  in  a  vestibule  formed 
in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  (Fig. 

189.)  The  top  must  be  covered  with  bricks  laid  on  iron  bars  or 
beams,  and  must  be  at  least  twenty  inches  thick  to  withstand  the 
heat  and  the  falling  of  beams  or  masonry.  (Fig.  190.) 


Fig.  190.     Top  of  Fireproof  Vault. 


169 


160 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Vaults  of  this  construction  are  fireproof  but  not  burglar  proof, 
the  "latter  requisite  being  obtained  by  a  lining  of  chilled  steel  or  a 
separate  burglar  proof  safe  set  within  the  brick  vault.  Vaults  have 
also  been  made  burglar  proof  by  constructing  them  of  concrete,  in 
which  are  embedded  old  iron  or  steel  bars  or  rods,  to  an  extent  that 
it  would  require  a  long  time  to  effect  an  entrance  of  sufficient  size 
to  extract  any  part  of  the  contents.  Copper  wires  are  sometimes 
laid  in  concrete  at  intervals  of  three  inches  or  less,  connected  with  a 
battery  which  will  ring  an  alarm  bell  if  the  wires  are  tampered  with. 
Store  Windows.  The  modern  desire  to  expose  as  much 
plate  glass  as  possible  in  store  windows  has  led  to  the  development  of 

a  special  construction  for  these  win- 
dows, with  the  object  of  reducing 
the  necessary  supports  of  the  glass 
to  a  minimum.  For  ordinary  store 
windows,  where  the  lights  are  not 
more  than  6  feet  wide,  the  bars 
may  be  made  of  a  common  T-bar 
covered  by  a  half  round  of  nickel- 
plated  brass  over  a  wooden  form, 
A,  Fig.  191,  the  glass  being  set  from 
the  inside,  and  held  in  by  pins  and 


A.. 


Fig.  191.    Sash  Bars. 


putty  or  wooden  stop-beads. 

Sometimes  a  half-round  bar  is  screwed  to  a  web  piece  of  iron, 
and  the  outside  painted  or  covered  with  nickeled  brass,  as  at  B,  Fig. 
191 .  Another  form  giving  greater 
strength  of  web  is  shown  at  C. 

For  larger  lights,  a  special 
construction  is  required,  giving 
greater  strength;  and  this  is  often 
done  by  means  of  a  special  casting 
exposed  and  ornamented  on  the 


A 


B. 


front,  but  otherwise  concealed  in 

the  wood  finish,  as  at  A,  Fig.  192.  These  castings  should  be  about 
2|  inches  wide  by  3  inches  deep,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  glass, 
and  the  glass  may  be  set  either  from  the  outside  or  the  inside,  and 
held  in  place  by  moulded  stops  which  may  be  made  of  metal  on  the 
outside,  if  desired.  If  transoms  are  used,  they  may  be  of  the  same 


170 


COTTAGE  AT  NORTH  EVANSTON,  ILL. 

R.  C.  Spencer,  Jr.,  Architect,  Chicago,  111. 

Frame  House;  First-Story  Walls,  Narrow  Clapboards  Painted  a  Dull  Ked:  Second-Story.  Wide 
Clapboards  Painted  White.    Built  in  1896.    Cost,  about  92,000. 


FIRST  AND  SECOND  STORY  PLANS  OF  COTTAGE  SHOWN  ABOVE. 

Credit  is  due  "The  House  Beautiful"  Magazine,  Owner  of  the  Copyright,  for  the  Use  of  this  Picture. 


FLORIDA  BUNGALOW. 

R.  C.  Spencer,  Jr.,  Architect,  Chicago,  111. 
Outside  Walls  Rough  Shiplap,  Stained. 


!Fr 


GROUND-FLOOR  AND  SECOND-STORY  PLANS  FOR  FLORIDA  BUNGALOW. 

Credit  is  Due  "The  House  Beautiful'  Magazine,  Owner  of  the  Copyright, 
for  the  Use  of  this  Picture. 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


161 


section  as  any  of  the  bars,  or  a  more  ornamental  form  may  be  given, 
as  B,  Fig.  192. 

The  top  of  the  window  will  usually  have  the  same  section  as 
the  sides,  and  the  sill  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  show 
window  and  whether  the  sash  comes  to  the  floor  or  not.  If  a  bulk- 
head is  required  with  cellar  lights  under  it,  a  section  similar  to  Fig. 
193  is  often  employed.  To  pre- 
vent the  windows  from  becoming 
frosty  in  cold  weather,  ventilating 
openings,  through  which  the  con- 
densation also  may  drain  out,  are 
provided,  and  a  trough  to  connect 
with  these  openings.  Basement 
sashes  should  be  provided  with 
wooden  sills  fitted  over  a  lip  in 
the  iron  or  concrete  of  sidewalk, 
or  bedded  tight  if  the  sidewalk  is 
of  stone  or  brick. 

The  corners  of  store  windows 
may  be  treated  by  adapting  any 
form  of  bar  to  the  angle,  and 
where  it  is  of  advantage  to  show 
no  bar  at  all,  the  two  sheets  of  glass 
coming  together  at  an  angle  may 
be  made  to  support  each  other  by  clamping  them  together  with  no 
dividing  bar.  Several  'patented  forms  of  connection  may  be  used 
for  this,  as  well  as  for  the  dividing  bars.  In  setting  large  lights  of 
plate  glass,  a  backing  of  rubber  or  leather  should  be  used  in  place 
of  the  usual  back-puttying. 

Mail  Chutes.  For  the  convenience  of  the  occupants  of 
offices  above  the  first  floor  of  any  building,  the  system  of  mailing 
letters  by  means  of  a  specially  constructed  chute  connected  with 
the  mail  box  at  the  bottom,  should  be  adopted,  and  location  and 
preparation  made  for  it  during  the  construction.  This  system, 
which  is  patented,  must  be  installed  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
local  postmaster,  and  all  the  apparatus,  when  erected  and  accepted 
by  the  Post  Office  department,  passes  under  the  care  and  control 
of  the  Government,  by  which  the  locks  and  boxes  are  authorized. 


Fig. 


Sill  of  Store  Sash. 


171 


162 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  boxes  are  of  various  sizes  and  patterns,  and  are  furnished  by 
the  makers  of  the  chutes.  The  chutes  are  required  to  be  in  remov- 
able sections,  exposed  to  view  and  easily  accessible,  and  they  may 
be  run  only  in  the  public  hall  or  corridors  of  a  building.  The  chute 
must  be  made  of  metal  with  a  plate  glass  front,  clearly  marked  with 
the  insignia  of  the  department,  and  when  installed  becomes  technic- 
ally a  part  of  the  government  mail  box  below. 

The  requirements  for  support  of  the  chutes  are  a  continuous 
vertical  surface  10^  inches  or  more  in  width,  carried  from  the  box 
below  to  a  point  not  less  than  4  feet  6  inches  above  the  top  of  the 
highest  floor  to  be  supplied.  In  front  of  this  vertical  run  must  be 

set  the  iron  thimbles  pro- 
vided  by  the  makers,  3| 
inches  by  9  inches,  the 
whole  absolutely  plumb, 
with  no  bends  or  offsets 
anywhere. 

For  wooden   buildings 
a  flat  casing  of  wood  may 


THIMBLE. 


Fig.  .194.    Backing  of  Mail  Chute  against  Wall. 


ELEVATOR 


be  used,  or   marble  or  other    costly  material  may  be   substituted 

wholly  or  in  part.     This   construction    is    generally  used  where  the 

chute  runs  against  a  wall,  as  in  Fig.   194.     Where  the  chute  runs 

down    beside    an    elevator 

grille,    or    in    other    places 

where  a   solid   back   would 

be     objectionable,     two 

"square  root"    angle  irons 

are     generally     used     and 

turned    so    as    to    give    an 

even  backing,  Fig.  195,  the 

thimble  in   all   cases   being  the   same,  and  the   angle    irons    being 

secured  to  the  floor  beams  or  other  rigid  support. 

This  preparation  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  building  contract  or 
of  the  mail  chute  contract,  but  will  have  to  be  done  to  the  satisfaction 
and  acceptance  of  the  makers  of  the  chutes  and  of  the  local  Post 
Office  department. 


Pig.  195.    Backing  of  Mail  Chute  against  Grille. 


172 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  163 

FIREPROOF  BUILDING. 

The  most  modern  feature  of  city  building  construction  is  the 
erection  of  the  high  business  blocks  which  form  the  main  part  of  the 
commercial  districts  of  all  cities.  Here  a  variety  of  problems  present 
themselves.,  more  or  less  complicated  according  to  the  nature  of  site 
and  surroundings,  of  size  and  usage. 

In  the  first  place,  the  value  of  the  land  which  the  proposed  build- 
ing will  occupy  must  be  considered.  Real  estate  in  the  heart  of  our 
large  cities  attains  almost  fabulous  value,  and  the  first  consideration 
which  the  owner  will  require,  will  be  the  maximum  of  rentable  area 
within  the  walls  of  his  building.  This  of  itself  will  force  us  to  adopt 
a  system  of  construction  which  will  permit  us  to  erect  the  building 
with  the  thinnest  possible  walls  that  safety  and  the  building  laws 
will  allow,  and  the  same  consideration  of  rent  will  force  us  to  build 
as  high  as  possible.  From  this  tendency  has  arisen  the  modern 
"sky  scraper,"  a  construction  consisting  of  a  steel  skeleton  covered 
with  masonry,  simply  as  a  protection  for  the  steel,  and  for  the  con- 
tents of  the  building,  but  having  no  weight-bearing  value  of  itself. 
The  floors  and  walls  are  supported  wholly  by  the  steel  frame,  which 
is  carried  usually  on  isolated  supports  far  below  the  sidewalk.  This 
is  the  common  form  of  high  building  and  is  known  as  skeleton  con- 
struction. 

Sometimes  the  exterior  walls  are  made  strong  enough  to  be 
self  supporting,  the  steel  frame  carrying  only  the  floor  loads,  but 
in  this  case  there  is  danger  of  unequal  settlement  between  the  frame 
and  the  enclosing  walls,  whereas  if  the  whole  of  the  load  is  carried 
by  the  steel  frame,  the  footings  can  be  proportioned  so  as  to  give 
equal  settlements.  In  doing  this,  it  is  customary  to  use  only  the 
dead  load, — i.e.,  the  weight  of  the  building  material — in  establishing 
the  proportions  of  the  footings,  for  if  the  live  load  of  people  and 
merchandise  were  to  be  included,  the  interior  footings  would  have 
a  much  higher  percentage  of  live  load  than  the  exterior  footings,  and 
as  the  live  load  is  not  constant,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  building 
to  settle  uniformly.  This  has  been  proved  by  the  present  condition 
of  existing  buildings  which  have  been  erected  upon  a  compressible 
soil,  the  tendency  being  for  the  interior  footings,  which  are  subjected 
only  intermittently  to  their  full  live  load,  to  settle  less  than  the  exterior 
footings  where  the  dead  load  of  the  walls  is  constant,  unless  due 


173 


164  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

allowance  is  made.  Some  authorities  allow  25  per  cent  of  the  live 
.load  in  addition  to  the  dead  load  upon  the  footings,  but  difference 
in  soil  will  require  especial  allowances.  The  essential  point  in  any 
foundation  is  not  to  overload  the  soil,  so  as  to  cause  excessive  settle- 
ment, and  to  so  distribute  the  loads  that  the  settlement  shall 
be  uniform. 

Height  of  Buildings.  As  the  owner  will  naturally  desire 
to  obtain  as  many  floors  as  possible,  it  will  be  necessary  to  consult, 
first  of  all,  the  building  laws  of  the  city  in  which  the  building  is 
erected,  to  determine  the  height  to  which  our  building  may  be  carried. 
This  determined,  the  number  of  floors  must  be  decided.  As  the 
lower  floors  are  less  likely  to  be  subdivided  than  the  others,  they 
must  be  given  a  height  which  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  probable 
size  of  the  rooms,  so  that  the  height  of  the  lower  stories  must  be  added 
together,  and  the  sum,  with  the  addition  of  the  thickness  of  the 
floors,  must  be  taken  from  the  whole  height  of  the  building  before 
we  can  establish  a  unit  of  height  for  the  rest  of  the  stories. 

The  Building  Site.  While  these  matters  are  under  consid- 
eration by  the  owner,  an  examination  of  the  proposed  site  will  be 
profitable,  to  gain  necessary  information  in  regard  to  party  walls 
and  the  condition  of  adjoining  property.  The  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  location  of  sewers  and  other  underground  works,  will  be  factors 
in  the  proposed  construction,  and  all  data  relating  to  these  matters 
must  be  recorded  and  carefully  preserved. 

Preliminary  Work.  As  soon  as  the  instructions  of  the  owner, 
or  the  recommendations  of  the  architect,  have  been  definitely  adopted, 
the  construction  of  the  building  will  be  laid  out.  As  the  problem 
will  resolve  itself  into  the  disposition  of  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  isolated  points  of  support,  instead  of  the  ordinary  continuity  of 
walls,  it  will  be  necessary  to  study  the  construction  at  the  same  time 
with  the  laying  out  of  the  offices,  in  order  to  bring  the  necessary 
vertical  supports  as  much  out  of  the  way  as  possible.  Another 
consideration  will  be  the  thickness  of  the  floors.  As  the  number 
of  floors  is  sure  to  be  considerable,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  an 
excessive  thickness  will  result  in  considerable  loss  of  height;  and, 
if  the  thickness  of  each  floor  can  be  kept  down  to  a  reasonable  rate, 
it  may  be  the  means  of  obtaining  a  story  more  for  rentable  purposes, 
which  is  a  matter  worthy  of  consideration. 


174 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  165 

These  factors,  which  do  not  enter  so  strongly  into  the  problems 
which  we  have  previously  considered,  must  have  careful  consideration 
in  constructing  mercantile  buildings  of  the  class  which  we  have  now 
before  us;  and  upon  their  skillful  employment  will  depend  the  suc- 
cess of  the  enterprise. 

In  the  bringing  together  of  these  elements  to  form  a  whole 
composition,  certain  external  elements  must  be  considered.  Among 
these  are  ease  of  access,  the  maximum  of  light,  rentable  area,  ease  of 
rearrangement  to  suit  tenants,  and  the  minimum  of  cost.  Ease  of 
access  will  require  that  the  elevators  and  stairs  shall  be  placed  in 
direct  and  obvious  connection  with  the  entrances  and  as  nearly  as 
possible  at  the  level  of  the  sidewalk,  readily  seen  on  entering  the 
building  or  on  leaving  the  offices  to  which  they  give  access.  The 
position  of  the  elevators  will  be  of  more  importance  than  the  stairs, 
as  the  latter  will  be  little  used  in  high  buildings.  To  obtain  the  best 
light  possible  it  will  be  well  to  provide  that  the  areas  (which  will  be 
a  necessity  in  a  building  in  the  interior  of  a  block  or  in  a  wide  building 
on  a  corner)  shall  have  a  general  direction  north  and  south.  These 
areas  should  not  be  narrower  than  six  feet  and  should  contain  win- 
dows as  large  and  as  near  the  ceiling  as  possible,  and  the  rooms 
should  be  as  nearly  rectangular  as  may  be,  thus  avoiding  dark 
corners. 

The  structural  conditions  will  enter  more  or  less  into  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  offices,  as  already  suggested,  and  to  this  must  be  added 
ease  of  adjustment  to  the  needs  of  the  average  tenant.  The  unit  of 
size  and  arrangement  of  the  offices  should  be  such  that  a  tenant  who 
wants  a  single  office  may  have  one  of  average  size,  or  a  tenant  who 
wishes,  may  have  the  whole  floor,  except  the  minimum  of  space 
necessary  for  toilet  rooms,  elevators  and  stairs. 

The  Structure.  When  the  character  of  the  building  and 
the  general  divisions  of  the  floor  space  have  been  established,  the 
location  and  design  of  the  columns,  the  kind  of  wall  and  floor  con- 
struction, and  the  size  and  spacing  of  floor  beams  and  girders  must 
be  determined.  The  location  of  the  columns  and  girders  will  be 
determined  by  the  size  and  shape  of  the  floors,  the  position  of  present 
or  future  partitions,  the  floor  loads,  and  other  considerations  which 
arise  with  different  locations  and  uses.  In  general,  the  most  econom- 
ical spacing  of  columns  and  girders  will  vary  from  14  feet  to  16  feet. 


175 


166  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  spacing  of  the  floor  beams  will  depend  upon  the  system  of  floor 
construction  used. 

Columns.     The    columns    used    in    skeleton    construction    are 
generally  made  up  of  a  combination  of  the  standard  shapes  of  steel 
bars.     One  of  the  commonest  forms  of  steel  column  is  the  Z-bar 
column,  shown  in  Fig.  196.     This  column  is  made  by  bolting  to- 
gether four  standard  Z-bars  with  reinforcing  plates,  the  bars  and 
^         plates  increasing  in  size  and  thickness  as  the 
loads  to  be  supported  increase.     The  column 
shown   in   Fig.    196  is   of   the  type  known  as 
"closed  columns"  and  can  be  used  only  where 
there  is  no  necessity  for  repainting   the  steel, 
as  only  the    outside    surfaces    are    accessible. 
The  open  form  of  column,  Fig.  197,  is  more 
Fig.  196.   closed  z-bar        generally  used.     Other  forms  of  steel  columns 
are  formed  from  standard  beams,  Fig.  198,  or 

from   channels   and   angles,   Fig.    199.     As  these   columns   will  be 
required  to  support  a  heavy  load  in  most  cases,  bases  must  be  used 


Fig.  197.    Open  Z-bar  Fig.  198.    Steel  Beam  Fig.  199.    Channel  and 

Column.  Column.  Angle  Column. 

which  will  distribute  the  weight  over  a  surface  large  enough  to  sus- 
tain the  load.  This  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  a  cast-iron  base, 
Fig.  200,  or  a  base  built  up  of  steel,  Fig.  201. 

The  selection  of  a  particular  form  of  column  section  will  depend 
upon  varying  conditions,  being  generally  determined  by  the  amount 
of  load  and  the  way  in  which  the  floor  beams  come  to  the  column. 
The  shape  and  size  desired  for  the  finished  column,  the  thickness 
and  detail  of  enclosing  piers,  and  the  availability  of  certain  shapes, 
are  also  factors. 

Erection.  To  save  time  and  labor,  it  is  customary  to  run  the 
columns  in  lengths  of  two  stories  each.  This  takes  more  metal, 


178 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


167 


but  the  gain  in  time  and  labor  will  generally  offset  it.  The  splicing 
of  columns  must  be  made  with  a  perfect  bearing  of  the  metal,  so  that 
the  load  is  transmitted  from  column  to  column,  the  splice-plate 
giving  the  full  strength  against  lateral  movement.  (Fig.  202.) 

In  this  connection  attention  should  be  called  to  the  importance 
of   starting    and     maintaining   the    columns    perfectly    plumb     and 


Fig.  200.    Cast  base  for  Stsel 
Columns. 


Fig.  201.    Steel  base  for  Steel 
Columns. 


always  in  line.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  that  the  bases  should  be 
set  absolutely  level,  as  the  slightest  variation  at  this  point  will  increase 
as  the  work  is  carried  to  a  height.  For  this  reason  bases  should  never 
be  set  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
mason's  level,  'but  an  engineer's 
level  should  be  employed  to  insure 
accuracy.  If  this  is  done,  and  the 
end  sections  of  the  columns  are 
milled  off  properly,  there  is  no 
reason  why  perfectly  plumb  work 
should  not  be  maintained,  per- 
mitting the  spliced  joints  of  the 
columns  to  bear  perfectly  upon  each 
other  without  the  use  of1  thin 
"shims,"  which  should  not  be 
allowed. 

When    splices    are    made     at 
the    building,    the    superintendent 

should  see  that  the  riveted  surfaces  are  painted  before  being  put 
together,  and  that'  a  sufficient  number  of  bolts  are  used  to  hold  the 
pieces  together  rigidly  while  being  riveted. 


n 

n 

\ 

r 

r 

i 

G' 

. 

0 

0 

0 

( 
c 
c 

> 

( 
< 
( 

© 
0 

0 

a 

o 

0 

c 
c 
( 

1 

< 

( 
( 

/^~. 

****-** 

J 

Fig.  203.    Splicing  of  Steel  Column. 


177 


168 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  use  of  splice-plates  for  connecting  columns  is  to  be  preferred 
to  a  connection  of  plate  and  angles;  and  if  any  part  of  the  column 
section  projects  beyond  the  column  section  below,  it  should  not  be 
left  unsupported,  but  should  be  given  a  bearing  on  a  filling  plate 
riveted  to  the  lower  column.  The  rivet  holes  in  the  column  and 
splice-plate  should  fit  perfectly  so  that  "drifting,"  i.e.,  straining  the 
pieces  together  by  means  of  a  drift-pin,  need  not  be  resorted  to; 
neither  should  heavy  mauls  be  used  to  bring  the  members  into  posi- 
tion, but  wooden  mallets  only.  The  finished  rivet  head  should  be 
clean  and  smooth  without  cracks  or  flaws,  and  the  two  heads  should 
be  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  rivet.  All  rivets  should  be  examined 
to  see  that  they  are  tight  and  well  formed. 

Loose  rivets  are  often  tightened  by  simply  calking  around  the  head 
with  a  calking  tool.  This  should  be  watched  for  and  never  be  allowed 
to  pass,  as  a  rivet  so  treated  possesses  no  working  strength,  being  tight- 
ened simply  by  the  contact  of  a  thin  edge  against  the  steel  members. 
Grillage.  The  great  loads  which  are  concentrated  at  the 
bottom  of  the  steel  columns  of  a  high  building,  will,  in  general,  require 

a  different  treatment,  to  secure  a 
firm  foundation,  from  the  stepped- 
up  foundations  of  stone  or  con- 
crete which  we  have  already 
considered,  as  in  Fig.  203.  Of 
course  it  would  be  possible  to  ex- 
tend the  area  of  the  succeeding 
steps  of  an  ordinary  pier  founda- 
tion until  it  covered  a  sufficient 
footing;  but  this  would  in  many 
cases  be  at  a  great  expense  and 
loss  of  room — two  important  fac- 
tors in  city  buildings.  To  over- 
come this,  and  to  provide  ade- 
quate foundation  within  reasonable  limits  of  depth  and  material,  the 
use  of  steel  beams  for  foundations  has  become  general.  This  use 
of  beams  is  known  as  grillage,  and  may  be  used  for  isolated  bear- 
ings or 'for  the  bearing  of  continuous  walls. 

Foundations  of  this  sort  are  usually  prepared  by  laying  down  a  bed 
of  concrete  from  four  inches  to  twelve  inches  in  depth,  and  laying 


Fig.  203.    Stone  Footing  and  Base. 


178 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


upon  this  a  series  of  steel  beams.     If  a  wall  foundation,  these  beams 
are  continued  at  a  spacing  varying  from  six  to  twenty-four  inches  along 


J I 


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Lvi 

1. 

1. 

Fig.  204.    Grillage  under  Wall. 

the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  204.  If  a  column  or  pier  foundation,  the  concrete 
and  beams  will  be  similarly  put  down  in  a  square,  of  an  area 
sufficient  to  sustain  the  esti- 
mated load,  and  these  may 
be  crossed  by  another  or 
several  tiers  of  beams 
at  right  angles,  each 
covering  less  and  less  of  width 
until  the  footing  is  brought  to 
the  desired  width  to  receive 
the  base  of  the  columns.  (Fig. 
205.)  The  distance  apart  of 
the  beams  will  vary  according 
to  their  length  and  the  load 
to  be  borne,  but  should  be  at 
least  enough  to  allow  of  filling 
and  properly  tamping  the  con- 
crete between  the  beams. 
The  whole  is  then  finished 
flush  with  a  bed  of  concrete. 
Sometimes  the  nature  of  the 
soil  and  the  closeness  of  the 
supports  will  make  it  advisa- 
ble to  cover  the  whole  area  of 
the  building  with  a  thick  bed 
of  concrete,  upon  which  the  footings  of  beams  or  stone  may  be  laid. 
Before  laying  the  steel  beams  for  grillage,  they  should  be  cleaned 


l-.'-ll--' 


Fig.  205.    Grillage  under  Column. 


179 


170 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


and  coated  with  asphalt;  and  they  should  be  examined  before  cov- 
ering with  concrete,  and  all  defects  found  in  the  coating  thoroughly 
covered. 

Timber  is  sometimes  used  as  a  grillage,  in  connection  with  piling, 
by  bolting  a  series  of  timbers  to  the  tops  of  the  piles,  this  timber 
crossed  by  succeeding  series,  and  the  top  covered  with  a  floor  of 
thick  planks  to  receive  the  masonry. 

Caissons.  Where  the  soil  is  too  yielding  or  the  necessary  area 
is  not  available,  foundations  are  sometimes  carried  to  the  bedrock. 
This  is  done  by  the  use  of  caissons  which  are  sunk  through  the  soft 
material  to  the  rock. 

These  caissons  consist  of  a  steel  chamber,  having  the  bottom 
edge  extending  below  an  air-tight  floor,  far  enough  to  form  a  working 
chamber  into  which  compressed  air  is 
forced,  which  keeps  out  the  water  and 
soft  material,  and  enables  the  work- 
men to  excavate  and  allow  the  caisson 
to  sink  to  the  bedrock.  The  exca- 
vated material  is  hoisted  up  through 
air-locked  shafts,  and  the  masonry 
of  the  foundation  is  built  within  the 
caisson,  and  helps  to  sink  it  down. 
When  bedrock  is  reached,  the  working 
chamber  is  filled  solid  with  concrete 
and  a  solid  foundation  is  secured. 

This  is  called  the  plenum  or 
compressed  air  process.  Caissons  are 
also  sunk  by  the  vacuum  process, 
which  consists  in  exhausting  the  air 
from  the  interior  of  the  caisson,  and  allowing  it  to  sink  by  the 
aid  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  By  this  process,  the  water 
is  caused  to  flow  under  the  lower  edge  of  the  caisson,  loosening  the 
soil  and  assisting  the  sinking  of  the  caisson. 

Pile  foundations  are  also  used  as  already  described,  sometimes 
in  connection  with  a  timber  grillage,  but  generally  with  a  foundation 
of  concrete  or  stone.  (Fig.  206.) 

Cantilever  Foundations.  In  buildings  where,  for  any  rea- 
son, it  is  not  desirable  or  permissible  to  build  foundations  under  an 


Fig.  206.    Pile  Foundation  for 
Column. 


180 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


171 


adjoining  building,  cantilever  girders  are  used  to  support  the  columns 
at  the  party  line.  The  principle  of  this  construction  is  shown  in 
Fig.  207,  where  a  simple  cantilever  is  shown  bearing  upon  a  beam 
foundation  and  secured  to  an  interior  column.  By  a  proper  adjust- 


(    } 


Fig.  207.    Steel  Cantilever. 

ment  of  the  loads,  this  construction  may  be  made  as  rigid  as  if  the 

wall  columns  had  each  its  own   footing,   and  complications  often 

avoided. 

Girders.     Next  in  importance  to  the    columns  will   come  the 

steel  girders  which  run  between  the  columns,  and  support  the  floor 

beams.     Where  the  load  is  too  great  for  a   single 

beam,  two  or  more  beams  may  be  bolted  together, 
as  in  Fig  208,  or  a  girder  may  be 
built  up  of  plates  and  angles, 
as  in  Fig.  209.  These  girders  are 
connected  to  the  columns  by  an- 
gles, varying  in  size  and  the  num- 
ber of  rivets,  according  to  the  load 
on  the  girder;  and  if  they  bear 
upon  the  mason  work,  steel  or 

iron  bearing  plates  must  be  provided  to  distribute 

the  load  over  a  surface  large  enough  to  sustain  it  safely. 

Girders  which  consist  of  two  or  more  I-beams  should  be  connected 

by  means  of  bolts  and  cast  iron  separators,  Fig.  210.     The  office  of 


=0= 


Fig.  208.    Steel  Beam 
Girder. 


c  ;> 


Fig.  209.    Plate  and 
Angle  Girder. 


181 


172 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  210.    Cast  Iron 
Plate  Separator. 


these  separators  is  to  hold  the  beams  in  position,  and  cause  them  to  act 
as  one  beam,  and  also  to  prevent  lateral  deflection  under  heavy  loading. 
The  separator  shown  in  Fig.  210  is  the  type  in  general  use,  and 
consists  of  a  series  of  bolts  running  through  a  plate-shaped  casting 
made  to  fit  accurately  to  the  outlines  of  the  beams, 
and  having  a  width  equal  to  the  desired  space 
between  the  webs  of  the  beams.  Another  form  of 
separator  consists  of  spool-shaped  castings  of  the 
required  length  to  fit  between  the  webs  of  the  beams 
through  which  the  bolts  are  run.  These  do  not 
form  so  rigid  a  girder  as  the  plate  separators,  and 
are  only  used  for  light  loads.  (Fig.  211.) 
Girder  Connections.  The  connections  of  the  girders  with 
the  columns  are  made  by  means  of  short  pieces  of  angle  iron  riveted 
to  the  columns,  above  and  below  the  girder, 
as  in  Fig.  212.  The  lower  angle  is  made 
heavy  and  set  so  as  to  form  a  seat  for  the 
girder,  and  is  reinforced  by  upright  pieces  of 
angle  iron,  also  riveted  to  the  column,  if  the 
load  is  very  heavy.  The  upper  angle  serves 
to  hold  the  top  of  the  girder  in  place. 

Inspection.  The  workmanship  of  all  riveting  and  splicing 
should  be  carefully  watched,  with  especial  attention  paid  to  the 
fitting  of  the  pieces.  It  is  usual  to  punch  the 
holes  by  machine  and  when  several  pieces  are 
to  be  fitted  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
holes  to  fit  over  each  other  exactly.  If  the 
variation  is  not  too  great,  it  will  generally  be 
overcome  by  using  a  rivet  smaller  than  the 
standard  size,  depending  upon  the  hammering 
to  make  the  metal  fill  the  irregularities  (which 
it  will  rarely  do),  so  that  the  pieces  are  im- 
perfectly joined.  This  should  be  guarded 
against,  and  the  holes  should  be  drilled 
Fig  "i"  Bearing  of  Beam  or  reamed  out  to  receive  rivets  of  the  stand- 

Gtofler  on  Column.  ard  size. 

Bolting  is  often  substituted  for  riveting  if  no  objection  is  made, 
but  \his  is  not  good  work,  as  there  is  danger  of  the  bolts  working 


Fig.  211.    Spool  Sepa- 


182 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  173 

loose,  while  riveting  is  absolutely  rigid  if  properly  done.  Of  course 
a  certain  amount  of  bolting  will  be  necessary,  and  this  should  be 
watched  to  see  that  the  bolts  fit,  and  are  long  enough  to  receive  the 
nuts  properly. 

When  bolts  are  used  on  the  sloping  flanges  of  beams,  bevelled 
washers  should  be  used  to  give  an  even  bearing. 

Painting.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  protecting 
columns  and  other  steel  work  from  corrosion.  Where  the  members 
are  painted,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  see  that  no  rust  has  formed 
under  the  paint,  as  the  process  will  continue  if  once  begun.  If, 
however,  the  metal  is  perfectly  clean,  it  will  be  protected  as  long  as 
the  paint  remains  whole.  "Mill  scale,"  a  coating  which  is  produced 
by  the  process  of  rolling  the  steel,  must  be  removed  before  painting, 
or  it  will  peel  off  and  bring  away  the  paint. 

Cement  Coating.  Where  the  steel  is  completely  encased  in  a 
cement  or  plaster  fireproofing,  there  will  be  danger  that  the  paint 
will  decay  in  course  of  time  and  leave  a  minute  crevice  between  the 
steel  and  the  masonry  which  will  allow  rust  to  form;  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  a  good  plan  to  coat  the  carefully  cleaned  steel  with  a  wash 
of  Portland  cement,  which  unites  with  the  masonry  and  maintains 
a  perfect  contact  with  the  steel.  Under  these  conditions,  no  further 
rust  or  corrosion  will  take  place. 

Floor  Construction.  The  size  and  spacing  of  the  floor 
beams  will  depend  upon  the  style  of  floor  construction  which  may 
be  adopted.  The  original  fireproof  floor  consisted  in  spacing  beams 
five  or  six  feet  apart,  and  turning  a  brick  arch  from  flange  to  flange 
of  the  beams,  as  in  Fig.  213.  The  space  above  the  arch  is  filled 


Fig.  213.    Brick  Floor  Arch. 

with  concrete  up  to  about  an  inch  above  the  beams,  completely 
enclosing  the  steel;  and  screeds  running  parallel  to  the  beams,  bed- 
ded in  the  concrete,  give  a  sufficient  nailing  for  the  floor  boards. 
The  ceiling  underneath  may  be  finished  by  simply  plastering  on  the 
underside  of  the  brick  arch,  or  a  level  ceiling  may  be  hung  to  the 


189 


174  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


rough  floor.  As  an  arch  of  this  shape  will  exert  considerable  thrust, 
this  must  be  taken  up  by  the  use  of  tie  rods  f-inch  or  f-inch  in 
diameter,  spaced  along  below  the  center  line  of  beams  at  intervals 
of  about  six  feet.  This  style  of  flooring  will  weigh  about  seventy 
pounds  to  the  foot,  and  has  been  practically  superseded  by  the  lighter 
constructions  employing  terra-cotta  arches  or  concrete. 

Terra=Cotta  Floor  Arches.  Hollow  terra-cotta  blocks,  moulded 
in  the  form  of  a  flat  arch,  are  used  to  a  large  extent  for  fireproof 
floors,  and  are  to  be  obtained  in  a  variety  of  patterns  and  devices. 
These  various  patterns  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  classes, 
the  side  method  and  the  end  method. 

Side  Method.  The  side  method  arch,  where  the  blocks  are 
laid  with  the  webs  parallel  to  the  beams,  Fig.  214,  is  the  original 
form  of  terra-cotta  floor  arch,  while  the  end  method,  where  the  blocks 
are  laid  end  to  end  at  right  angles  to  the  beams,  is  a  later  improve- 


Fig.  214.    Side  Method  Terra-Cotta  Arch. 

ment,  designed  to  present  the  full  end  section  of  the  material  to  resist 
the  great  thrust  of  the  arches.  These  side  method  arches  are  usually 
made  of  dense  terra-cotta  and  may  be  obtained  of  various  depth  from 
six  to  fifteen  inches,  and  they  should  be  set  with  close  joints,  and 
be  thoroughly  cemented  together.  Specially  moulded  blocks,  called 
"skewbacks,"  are  made  to  fit  the  lower  flanges  of  the  beams  and 
project  about  two  inches  below  the  beam,  which  is  covered  by  a  thin 
strip  of  tile.  The  space  above  the  blocks  is  filled  with  a  cinder  con- 
crete, in  which  bevelled  wood  strips  are  embedded  for  a  nailing 
for  the  wooden  floors. 

Side  method  arches  are  made  to  break  joints  endways,  so  as 
to  give  a  bond;  and  they  are  usually  strong  enough  for  all  ordinary 
floor  loads.  The  joints  in  the  blocks  are  generally  made  parallel 
to  the  sides  of  the  key  block,  as  this  gives  a  uniform  pattern,  and  so 
is  less  expensive  than  a  radial  jointing,  though  the  latter  would  make 


184 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


175 


a  stronger  arch,  but  on  account  of  the  expense  of  the  different  patterns, 
to  make  and  adjust,  it  is  little  used. 

End  Method.  In  this  method,  the  blocks  are  usually  made 
of  porous  terra-cotta  and  are  set  end  to  end,  giving  greater  resistance 
to  the  thrust  by  forming  a  series  of  continuous  webs  from  beam  to 
beam.  (Fig.  215.)  In  this  system,  the  blocks  are  usually  set  in 


Fig.  215.    End  Method  Terra-Cotta  Arch. 

continuous  lines,  not  breaking  joints.  The  jointing  of  these  tiles 
must  be  done  with  great  care,  as  the  open  ends  do  not  give  so  good 
a  surface  for  cementing  as  in  the  side  method,  and,  the  bearing  on 
the  beams  being  given  by  the  thin  webs,  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  fit  perfectly. 

For  this  reason  a  combination  method  is  often  used,  shown  in 
Fig.  216.     This  is  done  to  gain  the  extra  strength  of  the  end  blocks, 


Fig.  216.    Combination  Terra-Cotta  Arch. 

and  the  better  bearing  of  the  flat  skewbacks,  so  that  the  skewbacks 
are  made  with  many  webs  and  of  small  sections. 

Setting.  Floor  tiles  of  either  pattern  must  be  set  upon  plank 
centers  which  are  hung  from  the  beams,  and  should  be  crowned 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  an  arch  of  six  feet.  All  joints  must  be  close, 
and  made  with  cement.  The  centering  should  be  left  in  place  until 
the  cement  is  thoroughly  set,  which  will  require  from  twelve  to 
thirty-six  hours,  according  to  the  weather  and  the  nature  of  the 
cement,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  freshly  laid  tiles  are  not  too 
heavily  loaded  with  materials  until  they  are  hard.  If  the  arches  are 


185 


176  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

to  be  plastered  upon  for  a  ceiling,  they  must  be  kept  clean,  or  bad 
stains  are  likely  to  appear.  All  holes  or  irregularities  on  the  under 
side  must  be  filled  with  cement  mortar  to  give  a  proper  surface  for 
plastering.  Where,  it  is  not  required  to  have  a  flat  ceiling,  but  strength 
is  the  main  factor  to  be  observed,  segmental  tile  arches  are  often 
used.  (Fig.  217.)  These  may  be  used,  with  a  rise  of  an  inch  to 
the  foot,  up  to  twenty  feet  of  span,  and  are  employed  to  great  extent 
in  warehouse  construction. 

While  the  nature  of  floor  tiles  will  not  permit  of  a  fine  joint 
being  made,  they  should  be  laid  as  closely  as  possible,  especially 
the  key  blocks.  Joints  as  great  as  a  half-inch  should  not  be  per- 
mitted, and  the  tiles  should  be  set  in  place  by  being  "shoved"  to- 
gether as  in  brick  laying.  Unless  the  building  is  closed  in,  floor  tiles 
cannot  be  laid  in  cold  climates  when  there  is  danger  of  freezing  and 


Fig.  217.    Segmental  Terra-Cotta  Arch. 

thawing,  as  the  joints  are  liable  to  be  affected  to  the  extent  of  causing 
deflection  if  not  more  serious  trouble. 

Floor  arches  are  often  tested  by  applying  a  heavy  roller  to  the 
arches  after  the  wood  centers  have  been  removed,  and  by  dropping 
a  heavy  block  of  timber  upon  the  arch,  a  two-inch  bed  of  sand  being 
previously  spread  over  the  tiles  to  prevent  mechanical  damage. 

Concrete  Floors.  The  use  of  concrete  for  floors  has  become 
an  important  factor  in  the  construction  of  fireproof  buildings.  Con- 
crete floors  combine  the  qualities  of  strength  and  ease  of  manufacture 
with  lightness  and  less  expense  than  most  of  the  hollow  tile  construc- 
tions. Concrete  so  used  is  generally  found  in  combination  with 
steel  or  iron  in  some  form  or  other,  to  which  it  owes  its  tensile  strength. 

Concrete  floors  may  be  considered  under  two  classes,  one  in 
which  the  concrete  in  combination  with  steel  members  forms  the 
whole  of  the  floor,  and  the  other  in  which  steel  I-beams  are  set  as  for 
hollow  tiles  with  the  spaces  filled  with  concrete  upon  wire  cloth  or 
expanded  metal,  or  with  these  or  strands  of  wire  embedded,  as 
tension  members,  in  a  plate  or  arch  of  concrete. 


186 


ELCVATIO/I 


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B 

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JJECT10/1 


E/SD    CLE.VATIO/I 


f^UOOR. 


COW-BARN   ON  ESTATE  OF   J.  J.  GLESSNER,  ESQ.,  LITTLETON,  N.  H. 

H.  V.  von  Hoist,  Architect,  Chicago,  111. 
Built  in  1906-07. 


G.ODM 


4 


T  FLGDB  PLAN 
.i.t.f.t  t  T  T  T  ?  f 


ZLLEXftTION 
STABLE  FOR   MR.  J.  S.  HANNAH,  LAKE  FOREST,    ILL. 

Shepley,  Rutan  &  Coolidge,  Architects,  Chicago,  111. 
Built  in  1895.    For  Location,  See  Page  122;  for  Plans,  etc.,  of  House,  See  Page  138. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  177 

Of  the  first-named  class  of  concrete  floors,  the  Ransome  patent 
is  the  best  known.  (Fig.  218.)  This  consists  of  the  use  of  twisted 
square  bars  of  steel  running  through  the  lower  portion  of  the  plate 


Fig.  218.    Heavy  Ransome  Floor. 

or  beam  to  give  the  necessary  tensile  strength  to  the  concrete;  it  has 
been  used  for  spans  up  to  thirty  or  forty  feet  without  steel  beams  or 
girders.  Another  form  of  this  floor  consists  of  a  lighter  construction 
of  concrete  beams  each  with  its  twisted  steel  member,  with  a  thin 
plate  of  concrete  between.  (Fig.  219.) 

The  other  system  of  concrete  floor  construction  differs  from 
the  hollow  tile  floor  construction  in  the  use  of  concrete  for  a  filling 


T   T   T    T   T 

Fig.  219.    Light  Ransome  Floor. 

between  the  beams  instead  of  tiles;  steel  columns,  girders  and  beams 
remaining  the  same  as  for  the  tile  floors. 

These  floors  are  usually  to  be  found  in  one  of  two  forms — the 
flat  plate  of  concrete  lying  between  the  beams  or  the  segmental  arch 
of  concrete  formed  upon  a  center  of  metal  lathing.  Of  the  former 
system,  the  plate  floor  of  the  Expanded  Metal  Co.  is  a  good  example. 
(Fig.  220.)  This  floor  consists  of  a  plate  of  cinder  concrete,  from 


Fig.  230.    Expanded  Metal  Floor. 

three  to  seven  inches  thick,  in  which  is  embedded  a  continuous  sheet  of 
expanded  metal  which  is  laid  over  the  tops  of  the  beams  and  is  allowed 


187 


178  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

to  sag  down  between  them  a  few  inches.  A  flat  centering  of  planks 
is  hung  with  its  surface  a  little  below  the  sag  of  the  metal,  and  a  con- 
crete of  cinders  and  Portland  cement  is  poured  over  and  through 
the  meshes  of  the  expanded  metal,  and  leveled  off  at  an  established 
height  above  the  tops  of  the  steel  floor  beams.  Troughs  are  formed 
in  the  centering  at  each  side  of  the  floor  beams  which  allows  the 
concrete  to  completely  enclose  the  beam. 

On  this  plate  of  concrete,  a  wooden  or  cement  floor  may  be  laid 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  a  flat  ceiling  formed  below  by  hanging 
stiffened  metal  to  the  beams;  or  the  underside  of  the  concrete  plate 
may  be  plastered  upon,  forming  a  series  of  panels.  These  plates, 
of  seven  inches  thickness  have  been  used  up  to  seventeen  feet  of  span 
between  the  beams;  and  the  average  floor  will  weigh  about  thirty- 
five  pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  is  about  four  inches  thick. 

Of  the  types  of  arched  concrete  floors,  the  Roebling  patent  is 
a  fair  example.  (Fig.  221.)  This  construction  consists  of  an  arch 
of  wire  cloth  stiffened  with  rods,  which  is  sprung  between  the  floor 


&.,  ,^$$ 


Fig.  221.    Roebling  Floor. 

beams  with  more  or  less  of  a  rise  according  to  the  spacing  of  the 
beams.  Upon  this  arch,  a  concrete  of  Portland  cement  and  sand  is 
deposited,  making,  when  set,  a  solid  slab  of  concrete  three  inches  or 
more  in  thickness  at  the  top,  with  the  haunches  leveled  up  to  the  top 
of  the  arch.  The  most  economical  proportions  for  this  floor  have 
been  found  to  be  a  basis  of  ten-inch  beams,  spaced  according  to  the 
span  and  load,  with  an  arch  of  three  or  four  inches  at  the  crown.  This 
makes  a  very  strong  floor,  and  one  not  easily  damaged,  as  it  may 
be  punctured  by  holes  of  any  size  without  destroying  the  concrete 
arch,  which  is  kept  from  shattering  by  the  wire  cloth.  If  a  flat  ceiling 
is  required,  it  may  be  hung  to  the  bottom  of  the  beams  of  stiffened 
wire  cloth  and  may  be  flat  or  panelled  as  desired.  No  centering 
is  required  with  this  floor,  as  the  stiffened  arches 'are  bent  to  the 


188 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTEXDENCE 


179 


required  curvature,  and  after  being  set  in  place,  they  possess  enough 
strength  to  receive  the  load  of  concrete  or  the  shock  of  any  falling 
body.  Being  open  to  the  air  both  above  and  below,  the  concrete 
sets  quickly,  two  days  being  generally  enough  for  safe  use. 

While  these  systems  of  floor  construction  are  typical  of  the  main 
features  of  all,  they  are  not  necessarily  the  best  or  only  kinds,  for 
many  other  systems,  embodying  variations  of  these  features,  are  in 
constant  use,  some  making  use  of  twisted  wire  strands  in  place  of 
expanded  metal  to  support  the  concrete  plate,  others,  steel  bars  of 
special  pattern. 

Selection.  With  so  many  styles  of  floor  available,  each  pos- 
sessing merits  of  its  own,  the  architect  will  often  be  at  a  loss  to  decide 
upon  a  special  system.  Cost,  which  is  an  ever-present  factor,  will 
decide  in  some  cases,  and  in  others,  local  considerations  may  require 
particular  methods.  In  the  main,  consideration  should  be  given  to 
lightness,  strength,  and  fire-resisting  qualities,  as  well  as  speed  of 
erection  and  the  skill  of  available  workmen.  Of  the  respective 
merits  of  the  two  rival  systems  of  terra-cotta  arches  and  concrete, 


Fig.  222.    Steel  Beam  Connection. 

much  has  been  written,  especially  in  regard  to  fire-resisting  qualities, 
but  the  question  of  durability  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  settled  at 
the  present  time.  For  very  high  buildings  one  of  the  systems  requir- 
ing the  use  of  steel  floor  beams  and  girders  will  usually  be  adopted, 
and  the  beams  spaced  with  reference  to  the  load  and  the  requirements 
of  the  floor  construction;  these  beams  may  rest  entirely  on  the  top 
of  the  girders,  but  are  usually  framed  flush  with  the  top,  allowing 
the  girder  to  project  if  it  is  deeper  than  the  beam.  The  beams  are 
connected  with  the  girder  by  means  of  angles  riveted  to  the  webs  of 
the  beam  and  girder.  (Fig.  222.)  Connections  of  the  floor  beams 
with  the  columns,  which  will  occur  where  the  spacing  of  the  floor 
beams  brings  a  beam  .opposite  to  a  column,  are  made  as  described 


189 


180 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


for  light  girders.  The  outside  beams  of  the  floor  are  sometimes 
allowed  to  run  behind  the  exterior  columns,  forming  no  part  of  the 
exterior  construction,  but  more  often  they  are  framed  between  the 
columns,  and,  in  connection  with  other  supports,  help  to  carry  the 
enclosing  walls  of  the  building.  (Fig.  223.) 

Roof  and  Ceilings.  As  the  roofs 
of  high  buildings  are  in  general  made 
with  very  little  pitch,  the  same  construc- 
tion may  be  used  here  as  for  the  floors, 
but  a  special  treatment  will  be  required  to 
,  retain  a  level  ceiling  in  the  upper  story. 
This  is  usually  done  by  hanging  steel 
T-bars  at  a  level  below  the  roof,  and 
upon  these  a  ceiling  may  be  laid  either 
of  terra-cotta  blocks  to  be  plastered,  as 
in  Fig.  224,  or  of  metal  lathing,  Fig.  225. 
Exterior  Walls.  The  construction 
of  the  exterior  skeleton  of  a  fireproof 
building  will  require  special  treatment 
according  to  the  covering  material  to  be  used.  While  the  adopted 
type  of  floors  may  be  carried  throughout  one  or  several  buildings,  by 
a  simple  repetition  of  methods,  the  con- 
struction of  the  outside  frame  will  vary 
with  the  different  materials  used  in  differ- 
ent buildings,  or  often  in  different  por- 
tions of  the  same  building. 

In  general,  the  weight  of  the  exte- 


Fig.  223.    Steel  Beam  in  Wall. 


Fig.  224.    Hanging  of  Terra-Cotta  Ceiling. 


Fig.  225.    Hanging  of  Wire  Lath 
Ceiling. 


rior  walls,  especially  above  the  first  two  stories,  must  be  carried 
by  the  steel  frame.  The  two  or  three  lower  stories,  on  the  street 
side  being  largely  glass  area,  the  piers  are  often  carried  by  the 
foundations  below.  These  piers  are  sometimes  of  stone  enclosing 


190 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


181 


the  steel  columns,  but  brick  or  terra-cotta  are  used  to  great  extent. 
For  the  upper  stories,  especially  of  a  fireproof  building,  brick  or 
terra-cotta  are  to  be  recommended,  not  only  on  account  of  the 
fire-resisting  qualities,  but  also  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they 
may  be  built  around  the  skeleton  frame. 

In  general,  the  exterior  treatment  of  a  building  of  skeleton  con- 
struction will  resolve  itself  into  a  series  of  piers,  more  or  less  marked 
in  character,  which  enclose  the  vertical  supports,  the  space  between 
being  to  a  great  extent  occupied  by  windows,  with  a  horizontal  piece 
of  masonry  separating  the  windows  of  each  story  and  covering  the 
floors. 

The  masonry  enclosing  the  columns  is  generally  supported  by 
brackets  or  angles  riveted  to  the  columns,  and  the  horizontal  bands 
of  masonry  between  the  windows,  called 
spandrels,  are  supported  by  beams  of 
requisite  size  and  shape,  which  run  be- 
tween the  columns  and  are  riveted  to 
them. 

The  character  of  these  supports  will 
vary  with  the  design  of  the  building;  but 
in  general  the  inner  beam  will  of  neces- 
sity be  of  such  form  that  it  may  also 
be  used  to  support  the  floor  construc- 
tion. (Fig.  226.) 

Wind  Pressure.  A  distinctive  prob- 
lem of  high  building  construction  is  the 
provision  for  lateral  resistance  to  wind 

pressure.  Unless  the  building  is  more  than  four  times  its  width  in 
height,  the  effect  of  the  wind  pressure  is  not  a  serious  consideration. 
The  danger  of  overturning  the  building  bodily  is  very  remote,  the  chief 
danger  being  a  tendency  to  shear  the  connections  or  twist  and  distort 
the  frame.  Sometimes  the  ordinary  framing  of  the  floors  and  columns 
will  be  sufficient,  and  in  other  cases  special  provision  must  be  made. 
This  is  done  by  diagonal  ties  where  the  construction  will  allow,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  227.  When  the  spaces  between  the  columns  must  be 
used  for  passage  or  for  windows,  knee  braces  and  deep  girders  are 
used,  as  in  Fig.  228,  and  portal  bracing  is  sometimes  adopted,  but 
to  no  great  extent.  (Fig.  229.) 


Fig.  236.    Spandrel  Beam. 


191 


182 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


TYPES  OF  WIND  BRACING 


Fig.  227. 


of  Dtagona/  fod  Sro 
fo  Co/umrfj  trtffibor 


Cofarnn  Qay 


Inspection.     Steel  and    iron  members  are  inspected  in  the  mill, 
the  shop,  and  on  the  job.     Mill  inspection  is  to  determine  the  quality 

of  the  steel,  while  shop 
inspection  relates  to  the 
preparation  of  the  mem- 
bers. 

It  is  necessary  to  see 
that  the  drawings  are  ac- 
curately followed,  and  the 
work  properly  assembled, 
that  the  quality  of  work 
is  up  to  the  standard, 
riveted  tightly  and  accu- 
rately done.  The  mem- 
bers must  be  straight  and 
free  from  twists  or  bends, 
punching  sharp  and  true, 
with  the  holes  in  the  dif- 
ferent pieces  exactly  op- 
posite. Column  ends  and 
all  bearing  surfaces  true 
and  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis.  All  portions 
not  accessible  after  put- 
ting together  must  be 
painted  before  being  as- 
sembled. 

Terra=Cotta  Cover= 
ing.  The  adaptability 
of  terra  cotta  to  the  ex- 
terior adornment  and 
fireproofing  of  buildings 
is  so  great  that  its  use 
has  become  general  in  all 
places  where  durability 
and  resistance  to  heat 


Diaoram  of  one  Column  Bay 
Braced  by  Xnee  Plates  erxf  Ary 
fo  reiijf  Mntf  Pressure 


Bracecf  by  Porfo/s  of  f/afea  a/xt/lryto 


Fig.  229. 


are    essential.     The    ornamental    facings  can  not   always    be  sup- 
ported by  direct  bearing   on  the  steel   frame,   and   so  a  system  of 


192 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


183 


anchors  and  tics  must  be  devised  by  which  the  separate  blocks  may 
be  held  in  place. 

For  terra-cotta  finish  which  has  no  great  projection  from  the 
line  of  support,  ties  of  one-quarter  inch  rods  may  be  hooked  into  the 
ribs  of  the  terra  cotta  and  secured  to  the  steel  frame  or  the  brick 
filling,  as  in  Fig.  230,  but  when  a  greater  projection  is  required,  as 
for  cornices,  small  beams  or  T-irons  must  be  used,  well  built  in  or 


Fig.  230.    Anchoring  of  Terra  Cotta. 


Fig.  231.    Terra-Cotta  Cornice. 


anchored  to  the  main  structure,  as  in  Fig.  231.  Exterior  terra  cotta 
as  ordinarily  finished  is  not  affected  by  the  atmospheric  conditions 
which  affect  stone;  but  as  the  surfaces  are  liable  to  become  warped 
in  the  baking,  it  will  be  necessary  to  see  that  no  attempt  is  made  to 
straighten  bad  pieces  by  chiselling,  as  this  destroys  the  surface  and 
exposes  the  softer  interior  to  decay. 

Fireproof  ing.  We  have  thus  far  considered  the  covering  of 
the  steel  skeleton  from  the  point  of  obtaining  an  available  floor  surface, 
and  the  necessary  housing  in  by  means  of  the  exterior  walls.  While 
these  elements  are  also  made  to  serve  their  turn  in  protecting  the 
frame  from  fire  and  the  elements,  further  and  complete  protection 
from  fire  must  be  considered  as  of  prime  importance. 

Columns.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of  the  columns, 
which  necessarily  sustain  a  great  weight,  and  should  therefore  be 
adequately  protected.  Columns  may  be  enclosed  in  brick,  which 
should  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  thick,  of  hollow  terra-cotta  tiles 
may  be  used,  preferably  in  two  layers,  each  not  less  than  two  inches 


193 


184 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


thick  and  breaking  joints.  (Fig.  232.)  Columns  may  also  be  pro- 
tected by  the  use  of  metal  lathing  and  plaster  in  one  or  two  layers 
with  an  air  space  between.  (Fig.  233.) 

Girders.      While  the  floor  beams  and    flush  girders  are  pro- 
tected normally  by  the  floor  or  ceiling  construction,  girders  which 


Fig.  232.    Terra-Cotta  Column 
Casing. 


Fig.  233.    Lath  and  Plaster  Column 
Casing. 


drop  below  the  floor  must  be  given  a  special  protection.  This  may 
be  of  porous  terra-cotta  blocks,  shown  in  Fig.  234,  or  of  metal  lathing 
and  plaster,  Fig.  235. 

The  makers  of  floor  construction  have  each  their  own  system  of 
fireproofing  of  girders  and  columns  and  other  exposed  members,  and, 
in  general,  the  contractor  for  the  floors  will  be  given  a  contract  for  all 
the  other  fireproofing  of  the  building. 

Partitions.  The  partitions  of  fireproof  buildings  may  be  built 
of  brick,  terra-cotta,  tiles,  or  plaster  blocks,  or  of  light  iron  studding 
with  metal  lathing  and  plaster.  Brick  partitions,  to  resist  the  passage 
of  fire,  must  be  at  least  twelve  inches  thick,  and  so  are  not  generally 


Fig.  234.    Terra-Cotta  Girder  Casing.       Fig.  235.    Lath  and  Plaster  Girder  Casing. 

used  unless  required  for  floor  bearing  also.  With  the  column  and 
girder  construction  which  we  have  had  under  consideration,  a  lighter 
construction  than  brick  is  generally  desired  for  partitions. 

Partition  Blocks,  Terra-cotta  blocks,  either  of  dense  or 
porous  terra  cotta,  make  a  very  good  partition;  these  are  usually 
made  four  inches  thick,  and  are  of  the  same  composition  as  the  floor 
blocks.  They  are  usually  set  with  the  hollows  running  horizontally, 


194 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


185 


Fig.  236.    Terra-Cotta  Bloc 
Partition. 


in  order  to  obtain  the  flat  surface  for  bedding,  but  where  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  for  vertical  pipes,  it  is  well  to  set  a  vertical  line  of  blocks  on  end 
and  clamp  them  to  the  flat  tiles.  All  openings  for  doors  and  windows 
are  framed  with  wooden  studs  (or  with  steel  bars,  if  the  door  frames 
are  of  cast  iron)  to  receive  the  frames  and  finish.  (Fig.  236.)  For 
thinner  partitions,  blocks  of  solid 
porous  terra  cotta  two  inches  thick 
may  be  used,  but  they  must  be' 
clamped  or  banded  together.  A 
patented  partition  may  be  obtained 
of  thin  terra-cotta  plates  reinforced 
by  twisted  steel  wires  run  on  either 
side  of  the  plates  and  embedded  in  the  plaster.  Thin  plates 
having  plaster  of  Paris  for  a  base,  and  clamped  or  banded  with 
iron,  are  also  used  for  partition  blocks  where  extra  lightness 
is  required. 

For  all  of  these  blocks,  mortar  composed  of  lime  with  a  little 
cement  should  be  used  for  setting,  and  the  finished  plaster  surfaces 
are  best  when  hard-setting  plaster  is  used. 

Metal  Lath  Partitions.  For  a  saving  of  floor  space,  very 
thin  partitions  may  be  made  by  using  small  steel  bars  for  studding; 
these  are  usually  f-inch  channel  bars  set  vertically  about  a  foot  apart 
and  turned  at  a  right  angle  to  be  fastened  top 
and  bottom.  On  one  side  metal  lathing  is 
stretched  and  wired  to  the  bars.  This  is  plastered 
with  a  very  heavy  coat  of  hard  plaster,  which 
squeezes  through  the  lathing  and  makes  a  good 


Fig.  237.    Steel  and  Lath  Partition. 


Fig.  238.    Steel  Stud. 


surface  to  receive  the  plaster  of  the  other  side  side  of  the  parti- 
tion, forming,  when  completed,  a  solid  wall  of  plaster  and  metal 
about  1^  inches  thick.  (Fig.  237.)  It  is  necessary  in  this  case 
to  use  a  very  hard  setting  plaster,  as  this  gives  the  partition  its 
stiffness.  Special  patented  studs  of  sheet  steel,  made  with  prongs 
to  hold  the  lathing,  and  of  various  depths,  Fig.  238,  are  used  in  a 
similar  manner.  Door  and  window  frames  are  set  in  these  thir* 


195 


186  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

partitions,  by  setting  up  a  rough  wooden  frame  to  which  the  channel 
bar  is  screwed,  as  in  Fig.  239,  and  for  a  nailing  for  chair  rails,  picture 
mouldings,  and  other  finish,  strips  of  wood  are  laced  to  the  lathing, 
flush  with  the  plastering  before  the  plaster  is  applied.     (Fig.  240.) 
fletal  Lathing.     Metal  lathing,  which  is  of  great  importance, 
both  for  fireproofing,  and  the  finish  of  fireproof  buildings,  may  be 
obtained  in  a  variety  of  patterns  and  devices.     The  original  form 
of  metal  lathing  was  the  common  wire 
cloth,  and  this  is  still  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal forms  in  which   metal  lathing  is 
found.      Improvement  in   the   manu- 
Door  Finish  in  Thin         facture  of  wire  cloth  for  lathing  may 

Partition.  ,       „  ,  .        ,  .  ,  , 

be  found  in  the  various  means  adopted 

for  stiffening  the  cloth  by  rods  or  ribs  of  metal.  These  are  attached 
to,  or  woven  into,  the  lathing  which  is  then  known  as  "stiffened 
lathing." 

A  well-known  form  of  stiffened  lathing  is  the  Clinton  lath,  which 
contains  corrugated  steel  furring  strips,  attached  to  the  cloth  by  metal 

clips    and   running   across   the   roll    every   eight 

inches.  These  strips  not  only  serve  to  stiffen  •"  v^ 
the  lathing,  when  stretched  over  furrings,  but,  if 
the  lathing  is  applied  directly  to  a  plain  surface, 
such  as  planking  or  brick  walls,  the  stiffening 
keeps  the  lathing  away,  and  allows  room  for  the 
clinch  of  the  plaster. 

The  Roebling  stiffened  lathing  contains  V- 
shaped  ribs  of  various  depth,  which  are   woven 
into  the  cloth   at   7^-inch   intervals.     These  ribs      riFu?ringm°Thin 
serve  for  a  furring,  and  are  made  from  f  to  1^ 
inches  in  depth.     For  special   uses,  ribs   of   f-inch    steel  rods  are 
used  instead  of  the  V-shaped  steel.    Wire  cloth  for  lathing  is  run  in 
a  variety  of  meshes;  3X3  and  2^  X  2^  to  the  inch  being  the  com- 
mon mesh,  and  -it  may  be  obtained  plain,  painted  or  galvanized; 
painted  lathing  being  very  satisfactory,  and  more  generally  used 
than  any  other  kind. 

Expanded  fletal  Lathing.  This  form  of  lathing  is  made 
from  strips  of  thin  and  tough  sheet  steel,  which  are  cut  at  regular 
intervals  and  then  "expanded"  by  being  wrenched  or  pushed  into 


196 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


187 


Fig.  241.    Expanded  Metal  Lathing. 


open  meshes,  greater  or  less,  as  the  cuts  are  made  longer  or  shorter. 
This  expanding  also  turns  the  metal  on  edge,  making  a  flat  and  stiff 
sheet  of  lathing  much  larger  than  the  original  piece  of  metal.  (Fig. 
241.)  Having  a  degree  of  stiffness,  this  lathing  does  not  require 
stretching,  and  it  is  used  extensively 
for  wrapping  steel  beams  or  columns 
for  fireproofing  or  finishing,  for  thin 
partitions,  and  for  concrete  floors. 

An  objection  is  sometimes  made 
to  wire  or  expanded  metal  laths,  that 
they  require  an  excessive  amount  of 
plaster  for  ordinary  uses.  This  may 
be  overcome,  when  feasible,  by  the 
use  of  the  Bostwick  sheet  metal  lath, 

shown  in  Fig.  242.  This  is  made  from  sheet  steel  by  punch- 
ing out  loops  at  regular  intervals.  In  this,  and  many  other  forms 
of  sheet  metal  lathing,  the  surface  is  corrugated,  besides  being 

punched,  to  give  stiffness  and  to 
keep  the  lathing  away  from  the  sur- 
face to  which  it  is  applied.  Sheet 
metal  lathing  is  easily  adapted  to 
the  forming  of  coves  or  round  cor- 
ners, but  for  fireproofing  the  open 
lathing,  requiring  a  greater  amount 
of  plaster,  with  the  metal  more 
thoroughly  imbedded,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

Hard  Plaster.  The  use  of  the  so-called  "hard  plaster,"  for 
the  finishing  of  business  and  public  buildings,  is  to  be  advised  wher- 
ever the  slight  increase  in  expense  can  be  borne.  For  business  blocks, 
the  saving  in  time  will  usually  more  than  cover  the  extra  cost,  and 
for  schools  or  hospitals  the  harder  and  cleaner  surface  is  to  be  desired. 
These  plasters  are  made,  some  of  natural  cement,  and  others 
by  chemical  preparation,  and  when  dry  they  form  a  clean  hard  surface. 
The  natural  cement  plaster  is  slower  of  setting,  but  of  greater  adhe 
siveness,  but  the  chemical  or  patented  plasters  set  very  quickly  and 
give  good  results  when  properly  used.  The  cement  plasters  are  sold 
as  a  cement  only  and  the  sand  is  applied  when  the  mortar  is  mixed. 


Fig  242.    Bostwick  Lath. 


197 


188  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

For  use  on  lathing,  "fibered  cement"  should  be  obtained,  but  for 
plastering  on  brickwork  or  terra  cotta,  cement  without  fiber  may  be 
used.  These  cements  are  known  as  Acme,  Agatite,  or  Royal  cement. 

The  best  known  of  the  chemically  prepared  plasters  are  King's 
Windsor,  Adamant,  and  Rock  plaster.  These  are  sold  with  the 
fiber  and  sand  all  combined  and  ready  to  use,  by  mixirg  with  water 
in  the  prescribed  proportion.  Full  instructions  for  use  are  furnished 
by  the  manufacturers,  and  these  directions  should  be  absolutely 
followed,  as  they  are  the  result  of  careful  preparation  and  long  expe- 
rience. These  plasters  can  be  finished  with  a  white  coat  as  upon 
lime  mortar,  and  this  will  be  necessary  if  a  white  finish  is  desired 
upon  the  natural  cement  plasters,  as  they  are  gray  in  color. 

Keene's  Cement.  For  a  very  hard  finish  for  bases,  dadoes, 
columns,  etc.,  or  for  any  plaster  work  where  a  polish  is  required, 
Keene's  cement,  an  English  preparation,  is  generally  used;  but  some 
of  the  best  grades  of  American  manufacture  are  said  to  be  as  hard 
and  of  less  expense  than  the  imported  cement.  Keene's  cement  is 
sold  in  two  grades,  coarse  and  superfine,  either  of  which  will  make 
a  hard  finish,  but  superfine  should  be  used  where  a  polish  is  to  be 
desired. 

Scagliola.  For  interior  finish,  scagliola,  or  imitation  marble, 
is  used  to  some  extent  for  columns,  dadoes,  etc.  This  is  made  upon 
a  ground  of  lime  mortar  containing  a  large  proportion  of  lime  and 
hair.  When  this  groundwork  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  covered  with  a 
coat  of  Keene's  cement  on  plaster  of  Paris,  wrhich  is  mixed  with  the 
various  colors  and  polished  until  it  resembles  marble.  For  flat 
surfaces,  this  is  sometimes  made  in  slabs  upon  plate  glass.  Silk 
threads,  dipped  in  a  thin  solution  of  plaster  of  Paris,  colored  to  imitate 
the  veining,  are  arranged  upon  the  glass,  and  the  body  color  put  on 
over  them.  The  silk  threads  are  .then  withdrawn,  and  a  backing  of 
plaster  of  Paris  and  cement,  with  a  webbing  of  canvas,  is  spread  to 
the  desired  thickness.  The  slabs,  when  hard  and  dry,  may  be  taken 
from  the  glass  and  polished  in  the  same  manner  as  genuine  marble. 
When  scagliola  is  ski.llfully  made  and  polished,  its  resemblance  to 
genuine  marble  is  almost  perfect. 

Window  Frames.  It  has  been  the  custom  to  make  the  window 
frames  and  sashes  of  a  fireproof  building  of  wood,  in  the  same  manner 
as  for  ordinary  city  buildings,  depending  upon  shutters  of  tinned 


198 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


189 


wood  or  metal  construction  for  protection  from  external  fires.  Later 
developments  of  fireproof  construction,  and  the  disastrous  effects 
of  fires  in  the  vicinity  of  many  so-called  fireproof  buildings,  have 
led  to  the  growing  use  of  metal  for  all  external  parts.  Several  pat- 


Fig.  243.    Fireproof  Window. 


Fig.  244.    Fireproof  Window. 


ented  forms  of  metal  frames  and  sashes  have  been  introduced,  among 
which  are  some  made  of  wood  and  covered  with  metal,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  243,  and  others  entirely  of  metal,  as  in  Fig.  244.  These  windows 
are  arranged  to  close  automatically,  and,  when  glazed  with  wire  glass 
or  with  small  lights  of  prismatic 
glass  in  metal  bars,  form  a  filling 
which  is  acceptable  to  most  of  the 
insurance  exchanges  as  fireproof. 

This  form  of  glazing  is  of 
course  not  adaptable  to  show  win- 
dows and  large  store  lights,  but  as 
the  upper  stories  are  subjected  to 
the  greater  danger  from  fire  in 
adjoining  buildings,  this  defect  is 
not  serious. 

Interior  Finish.  While  wood  is  in  general  use  for  interior 
finishing,  it  is  now  possible  to  obtain  inside  doors  and  finish  made 
or  covered  with  metal.  These  doors  are  usually  made  of  thin  sheet 
metal  over  a  core  of  pine,  and  they  may  be  plain  or  moulded  to  re- 
semble wooden  doors. 

Stairs.  The  stairs  of  a  high  building  are  rarely  used  above  the 
lower  stories,  except  for  emergency,  or  at  times  when  the  elevators 


Fig.  24&    Cast-iron  Stair  Stringers 
and  Finish. 


199 


190 


BUILDING  SUPEKINTENDENCE 


Fig.  246.    Beam  Stair  Stringer 
and  Finish. 


are  not  running;  so  it  is  the  custom  to  make  staircases  simple  in  design 
and  construction,  except  perhaps  the  lower  flights,  which  are  often 
made  of  marble  or  of  ornamental  iron  or  steel.  A  simple  form  of 
stair  construction,  and  one  in  general  use,  consists  of  a  plain  cast-iron 
stringer  with  cast-iron  riser  and  marble  or  mosaic  treads.  (Fig.  245.) 
The  outside  stringer  may  be  more  or  less  ornamental,  and  the  soffit 
or  under  side  of  the  flight  should  be  neat  and  presentable,  as  it  will  be 
in  close  view  when  passing  down  the  flight  underneath.  The  stairs 
should  be  arranged  so  that  the  stringers  will  not  be  too  long  to  be  of 
cast  iron,  if  desired;  but  sometimes  a 
steel  beam  or  channel  is  used  with  the 
forming  for  the  steps  bolted  on,  as  in 
Fig.  246.  In  either  case,  the  bottom 
and  top  of  the  stringers  must  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  floor  beams.  Sometimes 
the  stairs  will  be  laid  out  to  enclose  one 
or  more  elevators  in  the  well  room,  and 
in  this  case  a  support  for  the  stringers 
may  be  obtained  by  the  corner  posts  of 
the  elevator  enclosure,  which,  in  turn,  will  be  strengthened  by  the 
lateral  support  of  the  stairs. 

PIPES   AND   CONDUIT5. 

The  running  of  pipes  and  conduits  in  fireproof  buildings  brings 
forward  a  system,  differing  in  some  essentials  from  the  ordinary 
piping  of  buildings  with  wooden  floors.  In  the  first  place,  less  cutting 
of  material  i»  available  to  make  spaces  for  pipes,  and  so  more  careful 
consideration  must  be  given  to.  this  matter  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
construction;  and  again  the  necessity  of  leaving  no  continuous  chan- 
nels or  connection  from  one  floor  to  another,  which  would  allow  the 
passage  of  fire,  will  require  that  the  pipes  be  run  in  exposed  situa- 
tions as  far  as  possible,  so  that  the  floor  material  may  be  filled  closely 
around  each  pipe.  This  is  a  point  that  the  superintendent  will  need 
to  keep  constantly  in  mind  and  be  sure  that  it  is  done  in  every  case. 

Plumbing  Pipes.  The  main  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes  should 
be  of  wrought  iron  with  screw  joints,  not  only  on  account  of  the  great 
weight  of  the  high  stacks  of  pipes,  but  because  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  great  height  of  pipe  would  destroy  the  lead  caulking 


200 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


191 


Pig.  347.    Electric  outlet  in  ceiling. 


usual  with  cast-iron  pipes.  The  pipes  must  be  securely  fastened  to 
the  solid  frame  of  the  building,  and  all  joints  well  screwed  together 
with  ample  chance  for  expansion.  Brass  supply  pipes  should  be 
used  throughout,  nickeled  or  bronzed  to  taste  when  showing.  As 
the  pipes  will  all  show,  the  soil  and  waste  pipes  will  need  to  be  smooth 
and  well  put  together  so  that  when  bronzed  or  finished  they  will  not 
be  unsightly. 

Gas  and  Electric  Piping.  Before  the  plastering  is  begun, 
the  pipes  for  gas  and  the  conduits  for  electric  wires,  must  be  run. 
These,  being  small,  may  be  concealed,  if  desired,  although  the  idea 
of  exposing  gas  piping  is  becoming  more  in  vogue,  especially  wrhere 
thin  partitions  are  used.  When  hollow  blocks  are  used  for  the  parti- 
tions it  is  customary  to  channel  them  ^ 

for  the  rising  pipes  and  conduits; 
while  the  horizontal  pipes  are  usually 
bedded  in  the  concrete  filling  over  the 
floor  construction.  (Fig.  247.)  Some- 
times the  horizontal  pipes  are  run  un- 
der the  floor  beams,  the  suspended  ceil- 
ing being  dropped  low  enough  to  allow  free  circulation  for  the  pipes. 
Sometimes  the  pipes  are  run  between  the  floor  beams;  but  if  the 
girders  are  framed  flush,  it  will  be  necessary  to  punch  holes  in  them, 
and  lateral  branches  cannot  be  easily  managed.  Where  no  partitions 
are  available  in  which  to  run  vertical  pipes,  as  often  occurs  in  the 

lower  stories,  the  casing  of  the  steel  columns 

may  be  enlarged,  so  as  to  allow  of  pipes 
being  run  up,  but  if  this  is  done,  a  sepa- 
rate flue  outside  the  column  casing,  as  in 
Fig.  248,  should  be  made,  as  the  insertion 
of  pipes  or  conduits  directly  into  the  column 
casing  destroys  its  fireproof  value  to  a  large 
extent,  beside  subjecting  the  steel  to  the 
action  of  injurious  gases. 

Heating  Pipes.  The  pipes  for  heating  the  building  will  in 
general  be  run  outside  of  the  plaster,  and  will  be  bronzed  to  match 
the  radiators  and  other  exposed  piping.  The  number  and  size  of  the 
pipes  will  depend  upon  the  system  of  heating  used.  For  a  large 
building,  the  heating  is  generally  put  in  charge  of  an  engineer  who 


Fig.  24$.    Pipes  in  Column 
Casing. 


201 


192  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

devises  a  system  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  architect,  but  some 
stated  conditions  will  in  general  be  found  to  apply  to  most  buildings. 

Heating  System.  In  almost  every  large  building,  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  engines  necessary  to  run  elevators  and  dynamos  will 
suffice  to  heat  the  rooms,  and  this  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  The 
exhaust  steam  may  be  forced  or  drawn  through  the  radiators  and 
transmit  heat  directly  to  the  building,  or  it  may  be  carried  to  a  coil 
in  a  water  tank  in  the  basement,  heating  the  water,  and  causing  it  to 
circulate  through  the  pipes  and  radiators  instead  of  the  steam.  By 
the  latter  method  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  heat  will  be  obtained 
and  any  danger 'of  back  pressure  on  the  engines  will  be  avoided. 
This  tank  must  be  placed  low  enough  to  prevent  any  backing  up  of 
the  water  to  the  engine,  and  the  circulation  of  hot  water  to  the  radia- 
tors may  be  laid  out  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  circulation  from  an 
ordinary  heater,  which  has  been  previously  described.  The  greater 
height  and  multiplication  of  radiators  will  require  a  much  more 
complicated  system  of  piping,  but  the  main  features  will  be  the  same. 
The  most  effective  service  will  of  course  be  obtained  by  putting  as 
few  radiators  as  possible  on  a  direct  circulation,  but  as  this  adds  very 
much  to  the  expense  it  is  quite  usual  to  run  one  or  two  large  mains 
up  to  the  top  story  and  from  a  horizontal  run  in  this  story,  to  bring 
down  the  hot  water  to  supply  the  radiators,  continuing  this  pipe  to 
the  heater.  This  of  course  gives  a  better  supply  to  the  top  stories 
than  the  lower  ones,  so  the  difference  is  made  up  by  putting  larger 
radiators  in  the  lower  stories. 

The  first  story,  being  subjected  to  more  glass  exposure  and  cold 
from  the  doors,  is  sometimes  supplied  directly  from  the  risers,  and 
the  discharge  returned  by  separate  pipes  to  the  tank,  while  the  other 
radiators,  being  supplied  by  a  descending  current,  are  supplied  and 
discharged  into  the  same  pipe  without  interfering  with  the  circulation. 
The  system  of  indirect  steam  heating  by  a  fan  is  often  to  be  preferred 
for  the  large  stores  or  corporation  offices,  which  usually  occupy  the 
lower  story  of  a  city  block.  For  the  heating  of  the  smaller  upper 
offices  it  is  a  good  plan  to  drop  a  riser,  as  described,  between  each 
pair  of  windows,  placing  a  small  radiator  in  front  of  each  window. 
These  may  be  supplied  with  fresh  air  by  means  of  sash  venti- 
lators or  other  fresh  air  inlets,  or  they  may  warm  the  room  by  direct 
radiation. 


203 


•  '3 


fa  * 
0  I 


3  I 

5  £ 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


193 


Lavatory  Fittings.  The  plumbing  fixtures  of  "an  office  build- 
ing need  not  differ  to  a  great  extent  from  house  fittings,  and  the  same 
principles  of  construction  will  apply.  The  fixtures  will  consist  mainly 
of  bowls  or  sinks  and  water  closets  and  urinals.  All  fittings  should 
be  strong  and  of  simple  construction,  easily  accessible  for  repairs 
or  cleaning.  The  use  of  wood  for  partitions  or  floors  should  be 
avoided  when  possible,  marble  slabs  and  marble,  mosaic,  or  tile 
floors  being  preferable.  Water  closets  should  be  placed  in  well 
ventilated  ranges,  with  partitions  of  marble,  and  slatted  doors  kept 
up  a  foot  from  the  floor.  All  hinges,  fastenings,  and  metal  fixtures 
should  be  of  nickel-plated  brass.  Urinals  of  the  ventilated  hood 
pattern  are  to  be  preferred  and  these  should  have  a  dished  floor  slab 
of  ample  dimension. 

Inside  Finish.  While  wood  is  used  to  a  large  extent  for  the 
inside  finish  of  fireproof  buildings,  the  use  of  incombustible  material 
is  increasing.  The  forms  of  metal  sash  construction  which  we  have 
described  for  outside  windows  may  all  be  adapted  to  interior  uses, 
and,  with  metal  doors  and  frames,  and  marble  or  mosaic  floors,  each 
office  may  be  made  practically  fireproof  in  itself.  Doors  with  sheet 


Fig.  249.    Cast-iron  Door 
Jamb. 


Fig.  250.    Sheet  Metal  Door  and  Finish. 


metal  covering  are  often  used,  and  these  may  be  set  in  cast-iron  frames 
made  with  rebates  or  channels  to  receive  the  plaster  or  block  parti- 
tions. (Fig.  249.)  The  doors  are  sometimes  made  of  hollow  metal,  but 
more  often  of  a  pine  core  completely  encased  in  sheet  metal.  (Fig.  250.) 

PAINTING. 

With  the  hanging  of  the  doors  and  the  setting  of  the  hardware, 
the  mechanical  processes  will  be  completed,  and  the  building  will  be 
turned  over  to  the  painters  for  finishing. 


203 


194  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Here  the  methods  and  materials  will  differ  little  from  ordinary 
painter's  work,  and  mainly  in  the  lesser  amount  of  woodwork  and 
the  greater  amount  of  finished  metal  and  plaster  work  to  be  treated. 

All  iron  or  steel  work  which  is  to  be  painted  must  be  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  rust  or  moisture.  Rust  spots  may  be  removed  by 
scraping  or  burning,  and  fine  ornamental  work  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  the  paint  carefully  applied  in  thin  coats  so  as  not  to 
obscure  the  pattern. 

Plaster  which  is  to  be  painted  must  be  free  from  flaws  or  cracks, 
and  both  the  plaster  and  the  wall  behind  it  must  be  thoroughly  dry. 
Plastered  walls  should  be  brushed  over  just  before  painting,  and  the 
surface  sized  or  primed. 

Completion.  With  the  departure  of  the  painters,  it  will  remain 
only  to  see  that  the  building  is  thoroughly  cleaned  from  top  to  bottom, 
and  all  paint  spots  removed  from  glass,  marble,  and  all  other  exposed 
material. 

The-  superintendent  should  carefully  review  all  notes  and  mem- 
oranda made  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  be  prepared  to 
furnish  a  complete  and  detailed  account  of  proceedings,  including 
a  record  of  all  orders  received  and  given,  materials  rejected,  and  the 
defects  which  warranted  their  rejection. 

A- diary  should  be  kept,  recording  the  state  of  the  weather,  the 
number  of  men  of  the  different  trades  employed,  the  progress  from 
day  to  day,  a  record  of  accidents,  and  any  other  data  which  would 
be  likely  to  prove  of  value  or  interest.  A  record  of  this  sort  will  not 
only  be  of  possible  value  to  the  owner,  but  will  contain  data  which 
may  be  of  great  value  to  the  superintendent  as  a  guide  for  future 
operations. 


204 


i 

sa  a  8 
Ml 


<  <  a 

M    £5 

§  IS 


=11 


CONTRACTS 
AND  SPECIFICATIONS. 

PART  I. 


In  order  to  build  intelligently  and  with  profit,  it  is  essential — after  the  scheme 
has  been  developed  on  the  drawings — that  the  materials  and  their  qualities  be  so 
selected  and  designated  that  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding  relative  thereto,  on 
the  part  of  either  the  Owner  or  the  Builder,  and  that  only  such  materials  be  re- 
quired as  the  former  is  prepared  to  pay  for. 


GENERAL  PROVINCE 

The  province  of  a  "Specification"  is  to  supplement  the  drawings, 
setting  forth  those  points  in  the  proposed  work  which  cannot  be 
readily  expressed  by  diagram  (and  figures).  It  may  therefore  be 
said  that  its  principal  object  is  to  define  the  general  conditions  un- 
der which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  and  describe  the  quality  of  the  ma- 
terials to  be  used. 

Its  literary  side  should  be  considered,  so  that  it  will  be  a  continu- 
ous description  of  the  matter,  dealing  fully  with  each  subject  or  each 
part  of  the  work  in  proper  sequence,  and,  after  so  dealing,  never 
reiterating  the  requirements  either  in  whole  or  in  part.  Short 
sentences  referring  first  to  one  subject  and  then  to  another  of  doubtful 
relationship,  should  jiever  be  allowed. 

Before  a  specification  is  begun,  its  limits  are  fixed  by  the  draw- 
ings ;  on  them  the  scheme  is  illustrated  fully,  the  material  indicated 
in  a  general  way,  and  all  sizes  shown.  It  is  the  imperative  duty  of 
the  specification  writer, 

(1)  To  acquaint  himself  most  carefully  with  all  that  is  illus- 
trated by  the  drawings; 

(2)  To  determine  all  that  is  not. 

Having  settled  in  his  mind  this  second  point,  he  has  the  province 
and  the  limits  of  his  work  before  him;  for,  as  above  stated,  it  is  the 


2C7 


2  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

province  of  the  specification  to  set  forth  those  points  which  cannot 
be  explained  by  the  drawings.  A  most  careful  study  of  the  drawings, 
therefore,  is  necessary7  in  order  to  see  every  point  in  the  proposed 
scheme  which  they  do  not  cover — which  points  must  be  covered  in  the 
specification. 

To  attempt  to  enforce  requirements  already  fully  shown  by  the 
drawings,  by  calling  attention  to  them  again  in  the  specification, 
while  it  adds  nothing  in  the  way  of  obligation,  has  the  effect  of  casting 
doubt  on  those  requirements  which  are  not  thus  doubly  set  forth. 

A  careful  consideration,  then,  of  the  province  of  the  specification 
will  show  that  its  functions  are  to  define  the  relations  between  the 
different  parties,  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  to  be  done, 
and  the  materials  used  in  execution.  These  are  the  points  which 
have  everything  to  do  with  the  cost  of  the  work.  In  building,  as  in 
most  other  items,  the  form  and  shape  have  less  to  do  with  the  cost 
than  have  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  done  and  the 
materials  required  therefor. 

Specifications  should  never  impose  conditions  which  can  involve 
the  contractor  in  any  unnecessary  trouble  or  expense.  They  should 
aim  so  to  modify  all  conditions  that  there  will  always  be  a  feeling  on 
the  part  of  the  contractor  that  there  is  a  co-operation  with  him  to 
produce  the  desired  result  without  unnecessary  expense  or  incon- 
venience. The  result  desired  should  always  be  apparent  in  the 
wording  of  the  specification;  the  means  of  obtaining  that  result  should 
— except  in  rare  cases — be  left  to  the  contractor,  who  is  alone  respon- 
sible for  such  result. 

The  payments  on  the  contract,  while  so  arranged  as  to  protect 
the  owner  fully  against  over-payment,  should  be  arranged  in  such  a 
way  as  to  require  the  use  of  a  minimum  amount  of  capital  on  the  part 
of  the  contractor,  and  to  render  it  possible  for  him,  if  his  capital  is 
limited,  to  discount  all  his  bills  and  pay  his  labor  promptly.  This 
co-operation  is  all  for  the  interest  of  the  owner,  as  it  is  evident  that 
a  much,  larger  number,  and  often  a  much  better  class  of  men,  will 
figure  on  work  when  such  a  spirit  prevails  than  when  specifications 
seem  to  point  to  a  domineering  spirit. 

Sometimes  it  is  imagined,  that,  unless  the  conditions  are  set  forth 
with  some  degree  of  harshness,  the  owner  will  feel  that  sufficient 
protection  to  his  interests  has  not  been  provided,  etc.;  but,  before 


208 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  3 

the  completion  of  the  work,  he  will  probably  see  in  the  smoothness 
with  which  the  work  progresses  that  the  tact  of  his  architect  has  saved 
him  much  annoyance  and  a  considerable  sum  of  money. 

The  same  spirit  should  govern  in  regard  to  the  materials  required; 
and,  whereas  in  the  above  the  spirit  of  tact  (the  business  spirit]  must 
govern,  in  the  matter  of  material  on  the  other  hand,  technical  knowl- 
edge may  be  shown.  By  this,  it  is  not  intended  that  the  technical 
knowledge  should  be  exercised  to  find  out  and  require  what  under  a 
general  analysis  would  be  called  the  best  materials  of  each  kind, 
but  rather  those  materials  which  in  this  particular  case  will  be  suffi- 
cient at  the  minimum  cost. 

It  is  probable  that  with  the  beginner,  as  oftentimes  with  many 
others,  the  matter  of  how  far  the  money  can  be  made  to  go  will  be 
the  first  problem — whether,  for  example,  for  $5,000  results  which 
ordinarily  require  $6,000  can  be  obtained.  To  rjaeet  this  demand, 
it  is  evident  that  the  specification  writer  must  use  his  technical  knowl- 
edge to  determine  what  are  the  cheapest  and  poorest  materials  he 
can  satisfactorily  use  to  accomplish  the  result.  The  old  expression, 
"the  best  is  the  cheapest,"  is  often  used  as  a  cloak  for  ignorance  of 
how  to  use  anything  but  the  most  expensive. 

"Standard  specifications,"  which  require  "standard  materials," 
put  in  by  "standard  methods,"  have  done  their  part  most  fully  to  dis- 
courage owners,  contractors,  and  finally  architects.  The  same 
judgment  used  in  buying  supplies  of  life  that  will  satisfy  requirements, 
should  be  used  in  buying  building  material ;  and  success  in  buying 
depends  on  knowing  how  poor,  as  well  as  how  good,  to  buy. 

The  Owner.  The  owner  is  the  autocrat;  his  wishes  are  to  govern; 
and,  unless  his  interest  can  be  thoroughly  aroused,  the  transaction 
will  probably  end  unsatisfactorily.  There  is  no  person  so  hard  to 
serve  as  one  who,  while  feeling  it  necessary  to  build,  has  no  interest 
in  the  process.  When  done,  the  work  will  never  be  quite  what  he 
thought  it  would  be,  and  he  will  never  be  satisfied.  Therefore,  if 
possible,  his  interest  should  be  enlisted  concerning  as  many  details 
of  materials  as  possible,  and  the  reason  for  using  one  and  not  another. 
His  questions  will  at  first  be  trying.  Possibly  the  first  query  will  be, 
how  much  greater  per  cent  will  be  the  cost  of  a  brick  or  stone-faced 
house  over  wood;  and  no  amount  of  argument  or  explanation  will 
convince  him  that  no  definite  ratio  exists.  But  the  question  can 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


be  used  as  an  excuse  to  discuss  the  different  qualities  of  brick  or  kinds 
of  stone  which  he  likes;  and  soon  technical  knowledge  of  these 
materials  will  awaken  an  interest  and  call  out  more  rational  questions. 
This  will  reveal  what  kind  of  materials  are  satisfactory,  and  an  estimate 
quickly  made  will  answer  the  question. 

It  is  the  right  of  the  owner  to  understand  all  the  differences  in 
quality  of  materials,  and  why  they  are  to  be  used.  If  he  does  not, 
he  will  probably  be  much  annoyed  by  the  wiseacres,  who  are  sure  to 
criticise  everything  delivered  on  the  site,  and  the  end  is  apt  to 
be  severe  criticism  of  the  architect,  who  "did  not  know  enough  to 
specify  the  best."  It  will  rarely  occur  to  the  owner,  that,  had  the 
best  been  specified,  it  would  have  carried  his  building  well  into  the 
hands  of  the  mortgagee.  This  interest,  too,  will  lead  to  co-operation 
with  the  architect  and  the  contractor,  which  will  lead  the  owner  to 
"give  and  take"  in  minor  matters,  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  himself 
and  the  contractor.  It  is,  further,  his  right  to  have  freaks  and  notions; 
and,  after  a  careful  presentation  of  the  case,  his  ideas  as  to  materials, 
though  they  may  be  decidedly  different  from  those  of  his  architect, 
should  be  respected,  and  the  material  incorporated  as  dictated  by  him. 
Herein  is  the  opportunity  for  the  architect  to  use  his  best  technical 
knowledge,  and  so  meet  the  conditions  that  in  spite  of  them  the 
result  will  be  satisfactory.  The  architect  who  says  that  he  carried  out 
the  dictations  of  the  owner  and  is  not  responsible  for  the  result,  is  apt 
to  lose  a  patron  and  possibly  make  an  enemy. 

The  Contractor.  As  a  general  thing,  the  only  object  the  contractor 
has  in  mind  in  taking  the  work  is  the  pecuniary  profit  to  himself  in 
the  transaction.  It  is  rarely  that  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained 
from  a  man  who  is  losing  money;  generally  he  so  manages  that  the 
owner  is  as  great  a  loser,  and  the  architect  is  blamed  for  the  losses 
of  both. 

While  the  contractor  is  under  obligations,  after  taking  the  con- 
tract, to  carry  out  the  work  "as  directed,"  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
his  assumption  of  the  contract  was  a  purely  voluntary  act  on  his  part, 
and  that  he  was  under  no  obligation  to  take  it.  It  is  his  right  to  know, 
before  he  puts  in  his  bid,  just  what  he  is  expected  to  furnish  and  to  do, 
and  not  to  be  left  to  furnish  what  in  the  judgment  of  some  one  not 
interested  in  him  are  materials  of  "best  quality"  or  "good  quality." 
Nothing  will  so  much  tend  to  draw  from  him  the  best  results,  as  to 


210 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


feel  the  sentiment  of  co-operation  before  referred  to  on  the  part  of 
the  owner  and  the  architect. 

The  Specification  Writer.  The  central  figure  in  this  transaction 
is  the  specification  writer.  His  tact  must  arrange  the  conditions 
under  which  the  work  is  to  be  done;  his  technical  knowledge  must 
supply  the  data,  and  set  forth  in  clear,  explicit  language  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  material  which  the  contractor  is  to  furnish  and  the  owner 
is  to  accept.  He  is  to  be  the  arbitrator  when  any  question  arises 
affecting  the  interests  of  both  in  conflicting  ways;  and  for  his  comfort 
the  arbitration  must  be  such  that  both  sides  will  see  its  full  justice. 
In  order  that  the  necessity  for  arbitration  may  arise  as  seldom  as 
possible,  it  is  the  more  necessary  that  all  the  conditions  and  ques- 
tions liable  to  cause  misunderstanding  be  fully  studied  and  settled  in 
the  specification.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  to  see  that 
the  contractor  follows  out  the  requirements  of  the  specification;  but  it 
is  unfortunate  to  have  the  specification  so  loosely  written  that  the 
requirements  are  ambiguous  or  at  least  not  explicit  and  the  con- 
tractor is  made  to  feel  that  he  is  distrutsed,  or  that  he  is  obliged  to 
furnish  materails  or  labor  at  a  loss  under  an  arbitrary  decision,  which, 
had  he  been  more  fully  informed  as  to  the  detailed  requirements,  he 
would  not  have  done. 

(Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  following  paragraph,  as  the 
advice  contained  therein  is  of  the  utmost  value.) 

Thus,  the  specification  writer  must  be  a  man  of  tact  and  technical 
knowledge.  It  is  outside  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  discuss  the  former 
quality  except  in  a  most  general  way;  but  it  will  be  its  object  so  to 
treat  the  technical  side  that  the  student  can  develop  such  lines  of 
thought  as  will  enable  him,  whenever  questions  arise,  to  attack  them 
from  such  points  as  will  gain  for  him  the  necessary  inside  information; 
and  it  is  in  no  sense  its  intent  to  set  up  such  matter  as  will  serve  as 
models  and  forms  to  be  applied  to  miscellaneous  conditions.  His 
training  as  a  specification  writer  should  be  such  as  to  accustom  him 
to  think  in  building  material;  and  when  the  habit  is  formed,  the  student, 
in  passing  structures  completed  or  in  course  of  construction  from  day 
to  day,  will  constantly  find  himself  reasoning  as  to  the  use  of  various 
materials.  This  is  technical  education.  No  school,  no  matter  how 
long  or  how  thorough  its  course,  will  cover  all  the  points  to  be  decided 
in  the  first  modest  specification.  All  the  training  any  school  can  give 


211 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


is  to  teach  a  man  to  think  out  the  solution  of  his  first  and  each  succeed- 
ing commission  along  sound  lines.  This  is  the  character  of  work 
which  rouses  enthusiasm  in  the  worker  and  without  which  the  work 
will  amount  to  little. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  WORK 

For  illustrations  in  connection  with  the  following  pages,  the  con- 
struction of  a  city  house  is  selected,  on  a  corner  lot  100  feet  front  on 
the  Avenue,  by  150  feet  deep,  on  side  street,  a  party  wall  on  the  inside 
line.  The  house  is  to  come  out  to  the  Avenue  sidewalk  line,  with 
coal  vaults  under  sidewalk.  The  Avenue  in  front  is  paved,  with  curb 
and  sidewalk  in  place.  There  are  no  improvements  of  this  char- 
acter on  the  side  street. 

A  careful  outline  of  what  the  specification  is  to  treat  should  be  made 
before  any  of  the  actual  writing  is  begun ;  and  inasmuch  as  the  scheme 
has  been  developed  on  the  drawings,  and  the  only  object  of  the  specifi- 
cation is  to  supplement  these,  a  most  careful  study  of  the  drawings 
should  be  made,  keeping  in  mind  the  question  of  conditions  and 
materials.  Notes  should  be  taken  of-  the  different  classes  of  subjects 
which  will  supply  the  headings  for  the  specification ;  and  very  largely 
on  the  arrangement  and  completeness  of  these  notes  will  depend  the 
success  of  the  specification,  which  should  never  be  begun  until  the 
last  note  is  taken  and  the  whole  arranged  in  proper  sequence. 

With  the  completed  scheme  in  mind,  the  site  is  visited  and  studied 
as  carefully  as  were  the  drawings.  It  is  found  that  a  fence  is  necessary 
to  prevent  careless  teamsters  driving  over  the  adjoining  property. 
The  curb  and  sidewalk  have  been  placed  under  the  direction  of  the 
city  authorities,  and  must  be  carefully  protected.  There  is  a  large 
tree  on  the  lot,  wrhich,  with  two  in  the  street,  must  be  saved.  In 
matters  of  this  kind  it  is  useless  to  stipulate  that  the  contractor  is 
to  be  responsible  for  any  damage  to  the  tree,  and  then  leave  it  unpro- 
tected. After  some  teamster  has  damaged  it,  there  is  nothing  the 
contractor  can  do  to  put  it  back  or  to  pay  for  the  damage.  A  definite 
protection  should  be  included  in  the  contract  work.  There  will  be 
little  use  to  try  to  preserve  sod  or  shrubs.  When  the  work  is  com- 
pleted, it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  grades  are  changed  just  enough 
to  destroy  the  sod,  and  the  shrubs  had  better  be  located  elsewhere. 
All  the  room  on  the  lot  will  be  valuable  to  the  contractor  for  working 


212 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


space  and  piling  material,  which  point  he  will  not  fail  to  see  in  making 
his  bid;  or — to  put  it  otherwise — if  he  is  confined  to  narrow  quarters 
and  required  to  protect  the  grass  and  shrubs,  he  will  add  a  round 
figure  for  the  additional  work  and  inconvenience. 

The  city  authorities  must  be  consulted  relative  to  the  amount  of 
roadway  which  may  be  used,  the  guards  they  will  require  in  the  way 
of  barricades,  temporary  sidewalks,  and  red  lights  at  night. 

The  question  of  where  the  sewer  and  the  water  main  are  to  be 
tapped  must  be  settled ;  and  it  is  usually  better  to  have  both  connec- 
tions made  under  a  special  contract  before  any  work  is  done  under 
the  general  contract,  as  the  sewer  will  possibly  be  needed  to  keep 
storm  water  from  the  excavated  space,  and  water  will  be  needed  at 
once  for  masonry  work.  If  the  street  has  been  paved,  it  is  probable 
that  both  sewer  and  water  main  have  been  brought  to  the  curb. 

It  will  be  of  advantage,  if,  at  this  point,  the  owner  will  have  three 
or  four  small  test-holes  dug.  Borings  are  of  doubtful  value;  and 
often,  in  uncertain  soil,  a  great  additional  expense  is  entailed  after 
the  award  of  the  contract,  on  account  of  necessary  substructure  work. 
Often  clauses  are  inserted  in  the  specifications,  requiring  the  con- 
tractor to  be  responsible  for  any  bad  spots  found,  and  to  do  all  neces- 
sary work  to  make  them  good,  so  that  test-pits  are  considered  unneces- 
sary. Since,  however,  under  such  conditions,  the  contractor  will 
always  figure  for  the  worst,  and  the  owner  pays  for  it,  it  is  better  to 
know  just  the  kind  of  bottom  you  are  to  have  for  the  building.  In 
digging  these  pits,  the  knowledge  of  the  various  kinds  of  soils  to  be 
encountered  will  be  of  value.  The  specification  writer  can  with 
certainty  know  how  much  good  material  can  be  used  for  filling  and 
grading  of  the  lot,  and  how  much  worthless  material  must  be  hauled 
away.  If  any  sand  is  encountered,  tests  should  be  made  to  determine 
its  value  for  mortar.  (See  later  "Studies  in  Materials".)  This 
knowledge  will  have  its  influence  on  the  bidders  in  making  up  their 
proposals. 

It  is  not  here  presumed  that  the  case  under  consideration  involves 
extensive  protection  of  adjoining  walls,  or  that  excavation  is  to  be 
carried  below,  or  shoring  done.  Such  cases  are  comparatively  rare ; 
and,  as  each  case  involves  questions  not  of  a  general  nature,  it  is 
outside  the  scope  of  a  paper  of  this  character  to  discuss  this  phase. 


213 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


STUDIES    IN    MATERIALS 

The  primary  object  of  this  paper  is  instruction ;  and  there  are  in- 
troduced here  certain  problems  carried  along  lines  which  show  the 
particular  qualities  of  the  material  under  consideration.  Special  at- 
tention is  called  to  the  fact  that  these  problems  are  not  introduced 
merely  to  illustrate  the  qualities  of  the  particular  material,  but  to 
indicate  lines  of  thought  to  be  followed  in  considering  every  material. 

There  are  a  great  many  things  taken  for  granted  in  connection 
with  building  material — many  old  beaten  paths  which  lead  one  from 
tradition  to  nowhere.  The  sooner  the  specification  writer  accustoms 
himself  to  testing  everything  he  handles,  the  sooner  he  will  be  master 
of  the  situation.  If  this  work  is  ignored,  and  he  follows  only  beaten 
tracks — and  the  information  of  "Material  Men" — he  will  be  in  hot 
water  most  of  the  time. 

In  specifying  materials,  one  maxim  should  always  govern: 
Never  specify  a  quality  which  you  cannot  demonstrate  exists,  or  forbid 
a  quality  or  ingredient  you  cannot  detect.  For  instance,  if  you  are 
not  prepared  to  have  a  chemical  analysis  made  of  the  Portland  cement 
don't  say  anything  about  sulphur  or  magnesia;  clauses  of  this  kind 
may  sound  well,  but  they  may  cause  you  trouble  if  later  you  cannot 
tell  anything  about  the  composition  of  the  material.  If  you  depend 
on  the  analyses  as  made  by  the  manufacturers,  you  can  depend  on  it 
that  you  will  never  find  a  cement  with  a  harmful  percentage  of  either. 

The  problems  will  be  on  the  following  subjects — Sand,  Cement, 
Lumber,  Roofs. 

In  addition  to  the  work  along  the  lines  laid  out,  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation should  be  so  cultivated  that  in  the  daily  routine,  wherever 
work  is  encountered,  the  eye  will  be  ever  ready  to  detect  any  phase 
of  development  in  material. 

SAND 

Sand  will  be  considered  only  in  connection  with  cement  (Port- 
land cement).  See  notes  under  caption,  "Cement."  The  province 
of  sand  with  cement  is  similar  J^o  that  of  brick  in  masonry,  on  a 
small  scale.  The  cement  acts  in  the  same  capacity  as  the  mortar 
surrounding  the  brick.  If  a  brick  could  be  made  the  size  of  the  com- 
plete wall  there  would  be  no  need  for  mortar,  but  as  it  cannot,  mortar 
is  required  to  fill  thoroughly  all  spaces  between  the  bricks  and  to 


214 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  9 

adhere  to  each  tenaciously  so  as  to  form  one  solid  mass.  If  on  the 
sides  of  the  brick  should  be  placed  thin  layers  of  soft  clay,  the  bond 
would  be  broken,  inasmuch  as  the  clay  would  not  cling  tenaciously 
to  the  brick  and  would  prevent  contact  with  the  mortar;  therefore,  to 
obtain  a  good  brick  wall,  each  brick  must  be  clean  and  free  from 
coating  of  foreign  material,  so  that  the  contact  with  the  mortar  will 
be  complete. 

To  return  to  sand — in  the  same  way,  each  particle  must  be  entirely 
separate  from  any  other,  and  must  be  free  from  foreign  coatings  which 
would  prevent  its  contact  with  the  cement  or  would  cause  the  particles 
to  cling  together  so  as  to  prevent  the  thorough  coating  of  each  particle 
with  cement.  The  usual  requirement  for  sand  to  be  used  with  cement 
is  that  it  shall  be  clean,  coarse,  and  sharp;  and  that  rarely  should  over 
three  volumes  of  sand  be  used  to  one  volume  of  cement.  In  our  case, 
however,  we  must  be  more  economical — we  find  in  our  pits  a  soft, 
fine  sand,  which,  while  it  separates  well,  resembles  ground  clay 
when  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  Before  throwing  it  out  as  useless 
and  paying  a  round  price  for  sand  hauled  in,  let  us  see  what  can  be 
done  with  it. 

Make  frames  of  wood  screwed  together  which  will  provide  32  moulds 
for  cement  bricks  2  inches  long,  with  f-inch  section,  by  using  two  long 
strips  f -inch  square  divided  by  £-inch  divisions  so  as  to  leave  2  inches 
clear  between  each,  all  to  be  oiled.  In  these  spaces  we  are  to  mould 


Fig.  1.    Frame  for  Moulding  Cement  Test  Bricks. 

our  small  bricks  for  test.  (See  Fig.  1.)  Obtain  some  clean,  coarse, 
sharp  sand  for  comparison,  and  also  some  of  the  fine  soft  sand 
from  the  site;  carefully  mix  (dry)  enough  cement  with  sand  to  form 
four  bricks  of  each  kind,  first  in  proportions  of  3  sand  to  1 
cement,  then  of  4  sand  to  1  cement,  then  of  5  sand  to  1  cement, 
and  lastly  of  6  sand  to  1  cement — eight  batches  in  all,  one- 
half  of  which  will  be  of  sand  from  the  site,  the  other  of  im- 
ported sand.  Each  batch  should  be  mixed  with  greatest  thorough- 
ness in  order  that  every  side  of  every  particle  of  sand  shall 


215 


10  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

become  coated;  then  add  just  enough  water  to  thoroughly  dampen, 
and  crowd  the  mixtures  into  the  moulds  (which  should  be  laid  on  a 
smooth  plank,  for  bottom),  compressing  each  as  much  as  possible. 
If  water  appears  on  top,  it  will  indicate  that  too  much  has  been  used 
in  mixing.  Then  there  will  be  four  bricks  of  each  batch.  Place  on 
each  an  identifying  mark — 

No.  1  3-1  Standard  sand  No.  5  3-1  Common  sand 

"    2  4-1          "  "    6  4-1 

"     3  5-1           "           "  "     7  5-1         " 

"    4  6-1           "           "  '•     8  6-1 

Cover  with  a  damp  cloth  to  prevent  evaporation;  and  after  one  day, 
draw  out  the  screws  holding  the  forms,  and  put  the  bricks  for  two 
weeks  in  a  damp  place,  covered  with  a  wet  cloth  or  in  water.  Obtain 
two  good,  smooth  planks  about  3  feet  long  by  1  foot  wide;  go  to  a 
neighboring  foundry,  and  obtain  -permission  to  use  their  scales  and 
a  few  hundred  pounds  of  pig  iron ;  lay  down  one  plank  on  a  perfectly 
level  bed,  and  place  the  number  8  brick  on  their  sides.  (See  Fig.  2.) 


3-0" 


Fig.  2.    Method  of  Testing  Cement  Bricks  for  Crushing  Strength. 

In  order  to  get  an  even  bearing  it  is  well  to  place  below  and  over 
the  cement  bricks  one  layer  of  soft  building  paper;  above  place  *he 
second  plank  with  great  care,  seeing  that  it  has  a  firm,  even  bearing 
at  each  of  the  four  bricks.  Carefully  lay  pig  iron  above,  beginning 
at  the  middle,  and  fill  each  way,  never  loading  one  end  before  or  with 
a  much  heavier  load  than  the  other.  Carefully  watch  the  bricks; 
note  when  they  crack;  and  when  they  crumble,  weigh  the  pig  iron 
and  note  the  results. 

As  above,  test  each  of  the  remaining  seven  sets  of  bricks. 

It  is  safe  for  ordinary  dwellings  to  select  the  cheapest  materials 
and  mixture  which  will  carry  under  such  conditions  500  pounds  of  iron. 


216 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  11 

For  example,  it  is  supposed  that  No.  3  sample,  made  up  of  5  parts 
coarse  sand  to  1  part  cement,  carries  the  same  load  as  No.  6  (4  parts 
sand  from  the  site  to  1  part  cement).  If  it  costs  $1.50  for  one  cubic 
yard  of  coarse  sand,  and  50  cents  a  yard  to  haul  the  sand  away  from 
the  excavation,  the  coarse  sand  costs  us  for  use  $2.00  a  cubic  yard, 
or  7.4  cents  a  cub'ic  foot.  With  cement  at  $2.00  a  barrel,  we  have: 

Cost  of  5  cubic  feet  of  sand 37  cts. 

Cost  of  1  cubic  foot  of  cement. 67  cts. 


Cost  of  5*  cubic  feet  of  mortar $1.04 

or 20  |  cts.  a  cubic  foot. 

Using  sand  from  the  site  in  mixture  No.  6  (4  sand  to  1  cement), 
we  have  the  cost  per  cubic  foot  as  follows: 

Cost  of  4  cubic  feet  of  sand Nothing 

Cost  of  1  cubic  foot  of  cement 67  cts. 


Cost  of  4  cubic  feet  of  mortar $0.67 

or 16  £  cts.  a  cubic  foot. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  it  is  cheaper  to  use  the  4  to  1  mixture 
and  the  poorer  sand  from  the  site,  than  to  haul  it  away,  bring  in 
other  sand,  and  use  less  cement.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  found 
that  it  will  require  No.  5  to  equal  No.  3,  it  will  be  cheaper  to  haul 
away  the  excavated  sand  and  haul  in  good  sand. 

Before  breaking  the  bricks,  they  should  be  very  carefully 
examined  as  to  texture  and  firmness.  Scratching  with  the  finger-nail 
will  show  the  general  quality  to  the  student  after  a  short  experience, 
so  that  experiment  with  weights  is  unnecessary  after  the  student 
has  become  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  good  mortar. 

After  the  bricks  are  broken,  examine  the  fractures,  and  observe 
with  a  glass  how  well  the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  sand  are 
filled.  Generally  the  results  will  be  about  in  this  order: 

No.  1  will  show  much  greater  strength  than  the  corresponding 
No.  5.  No.  2  and  No.  6  will  show  less  difference.  Possibly  No.  3 
will  break  under  less  weight  than  No.  7;  while  No.  4  will  go  to  pieces 
much  before  No.  8.  The  reason  for  this  is  readily  detected  under  a 
glass.  The  imported  coarse  sand  requires  much  more  cement  to 
fill  the  spaces.  In  No.  1  they  are  all  filled;  while  in  No.  4  there  are 

*NOTE. — When  sand  and  cement  are  mixed  in  proper  proportions,  the  bulk  of  the 
mixture  is  not  greater  than  the  bulk  of  the  sand,  as  the  cement  only  fills  the  voids  or 
spaces  between  the  particles  of  sand,  just  as  there  can  be  poured  into  a  full  measure  of 
shot  20  per  cent  of  water  without  overflowing  the  measure. 


217 


12  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

large  voids,  which  do  not  occur  to  such  an  extent  in  Nos.  7  and  8; 
the  sand  being  finer  allows  smaller  voids.  Observe  that  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  voids  or  small  holes  in  the  mass  weakens  the  mixture. 

Now  try  one  other  experiment.  Get  two  forms  from  which  4- 
inch  cubes  can  be  made;  make  a  mixture  of  possibly  4  fine  sand  to 
1  cement;  mix  one  with  a  large  amount  of  water,  as  is  usually  seen  in 
ordinary  work;  and  from  this  form  a  4-inch  cube.  Mix  for  the  other 
cube  the  same  proportion,  but  with  just  enough  water  to  change 
throughout  the  color  of  the  mass.  Crowd  the  mixtures  into  the  form, 
both  cubes  to  be  compressed  as  much  as  possible;  set  the  cubes  aside, 
covered  with  a  wet  cloth  for  a  week;  then  split  with  a  cold  chisel, 
and  observe.  The  interior  make-up  of  that  mixed  with  a  larger 
amount  of  water,  is  full  of  voids ;  that  mixed  with  little  water  is  com- 
pact. 

The  question  of  sand  is  treated,  as  later  the  question  of  roofs 
will  be,  in  a  great  deal  of  home-made  detail,  not  only  to  get  at  the 
Question  of  sand  and  roofs,  but  to  illustrate  how,  with  materials  that 
are  always  at  hand,  results  of  great  practical  value  may  be  obtained. 

CEMENT 

There  is  probably  no  other  building  material  on  which  so  much 
has  been  written  within  the  last  ten  years;  and  there  will  be  no 
attempt  here  to  discuss  the  question  except  from  an  extremely  prac- 
tical standpoint.  All  things  considered,  Portland  cement  at 
$2.00  a  barrel  net  is  the  most  economical  material  to  be  used 
in  general  masonry.  Lime  is  much  cheaper,  but  of  very  doubtful 
value  as  generally  used.  The  English,  Scotch,  and  French  use  lime 
with  great  success;  but  it  is  always  slaked  in  pits  for  at  least  three 
months  prior  to  use,  and  is  treated  and  worked  so  as  to  make  it 
valuable  for  mortar,  while  in  this  country  it  is  used  after  such  crude 
treatment  that  it  cannot  be  considered  a  material  suitable  for  good 
work.  Therefore  lime  in  any  form  will  not  be  further  considered  for 
masonry  work. 

There  are  now  three  classes  of  Portland  cement  on  sale  in  this 
country.  By  far  the  largest  class  is  that  ground  from  an  artificial 
clinker.  Second  are  what  is  known  as  "slag"  cements,  ground  largely 
from  furnace  slag.  While  in  many  of  the  second  class  the  sulphur 
has  been  so  far  extracted  as  to  make  them  identical  in  chemical 


218 


o  flw«vi  :5?~S  tiS-ai  ~  fe  c-~, 

«li&swliwl»iillll 
o  ilsiliir-siliiili 
« silllaill«faglll 

o   Xcsce-S^rt^:—  u^Wls-ajSj:1 

o  ssbo^^PnOixwa      Q?ot 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  13 

.analysis  with  those  of  the  first  class,  and  of  great  value  in  general 
masonry,  it  is  wiser  to  avoid  their  use  where  surfaces  are  exposed  to 
wear,  as  in  sidewalks,  steps,  etc.  Unless  the  work  is  of  minor  impor- 
tance they  should  not  be  used  unless  such  chemical  test  (independent 
of  tests  made  by  the  manufacturers)  can  be  obtained  as  will  show 
that  the  sulphur  therein  is  below  2  per  cent. 

The  third  class  is  one  imported  from  Belgium  under  various 
brands  carrying  English  names,  such  as  "Eagle,"  "Star,"  etc.,  the 
packages,  however,  showing  the  place  of  manufacture.  These 
cements  are  generally  coarse  and  of  low  grade — possibly  the  factory's 
second  grade,  on  which  the  manufacturer  does  not  care  to  put  his 
regular  brand. 

English  cement  is  practically  out  of  the  market. 

A  few  brands  of  German  remain,  like  the  '.'Dykerhoff,"  which 
commands  a  high  price  and  for  which  there  is  a  limited  demand  from 
users  who  believe  there  are  no  other  brands  from  which  quite  as  good 
results  can  be  obtained.  For  our  purposes,  however,  the  second  and 
third  classes  need  not  be  considered;  the  range  in  No.  1  is  wide,  and 
little  if  anything  is  gained  in  price  in  using  Nos.  2  and  3. 

On  important  work,  tests  should  be  made  to  determine  the  fine- 
ness of  grinding,  specific  gravity,  time  of  initial  and  final  set,  sound- 
ness, the  proportion  of  silica  to  lime,  and  the  amount  of  sulphur  and 
magnesia.  Tests  are  also  made  of  tensile  strength;  but  as  this  is  a 
quality  never  required  of  cement,  and  this  test  only  indirectly  bears 
on  other  necessary  qualities ;  and  as  the  presence  of  matter  which  is 
apt  to  cause  final  disintegration,  tends  often — in  the  early  stages 
of  use — to  increase  the  tensile  strength,  such  tests  should  be  in  no 
way  relied  on. 

In  this  paper,  only  three  tests  which  it  is  possible  for  the  student 
to  make  with  appliances  easily  obtained,  will  be  considered. 

Fineness.  What  is  known  as  a  100-mesh  sieve — that  is,  a  sieve 
with  100  spaces  to  an  inch — should  be  obtained.  Any  first-class 
hardware  store  can  furnish  the  wire  either  from  stock  or  on  order 
and  a  home-made  sieve  can  be  constructed.  A  small  quantity  of 
cement  should  be  weighed  and  most  carefully  sifted;  90  per  cent 
of  the  material  should  pass  through  the  sieve.  By  referring  to  state- 
ments relative  to  cement,  under  "Sand,"  the  student  will  understand 
that  extreme  fineness  is  required  in  order  that  the  cement  may  fit  in 


2)9 


14  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

and  completely  fill  any  voids  which  may  exist  between  the  particles 
of  sand. 

Initial  Set.  The  time  for  the  initial  set  is  determined  approxi- 
mately as  follows : 

Mix  a  sniall  amount  of  neat  cement  (that  is,  clear  cement  without 
sand)  with  water,  to  the  consistency  of  stiff  mortar;  and  observe 
the  time  it  takes  to  set  hard  enough  to  prevent  an  indentation  being 
made  by  a  wire  about  6  inches  long  and  of  Ty-inch  diameter  loaded 
with  a  |-pound  ball  on  top,  when  set  thereon.  Such  time  should 
not  be  less  than  30  minutes. 

It  is  unwise  to  use  cement  which  sets  at  once  or  in  such  short 
time  that  it  is  inconvenient  to  place  it  before  such  set  occurs.  Cement 
fresh  from  the  works  often  takes  its  first  set  quickly;  but  after  it  has 
attained  an  age  of  two  or  three  months  before  being  used,  is  all  right. 
Therefore,  never  specify  "fresh  cement,"  as  none  should  be  used 
within  three  months  from  the  date  of  its  manufacture. 

Note.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  setting  quality  of  cement  con- 
sists in  the  permanent  union  of  water  with  the  cement.  The  setting 
of  cement  mortar  is  often  referred  to  as  the  "drying  out;"  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  water  necessary  for  mixing  the  mortar  never  leaves  it  unless 
driven  off  by  extreme  heat.  Take  a  tin  can  with  tight  cover;  weigh  out 
five  pounds  of  dry  cement;  mix  with  it  enough  water  to  wet  it;  pack 
it  in  the  can  and  thoroughly  compress  it.  If  water  rises  to  the  top — 
indicating  that  too  much  has  been  added — pour  it  off;  put  on  the 
cover  tight,  weigh  the  whole,  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  added; 
and  set  away  for  two  weeks.  Then  open,  and  set  in  a  warm,  dry  place 
for  a  few  days  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  dry,  and  weigh.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  weight  is  that  of  the  original  cement  plus  the  water 
added,  which  still  remains  in  the  mass.  Subject  this  to  extreme  heat, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  the  water  is  thrown  off,  the  cement  is  fine 
again,  and  its  weight  corresponds  with  that  originally  used. 

Soundness.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  physical  tests, 
for  it  indicates  whether  there  probably  exist  elements  which  will 
eventually  disintegrate  the  mass.  The  action  of  pats  should  be  care- 
fully observed;  and  if  warping,  cracking,  or  blotches  appear,  the 
material  should  not  be  used.  Form  on  small  pieces  of  clean  glass 
four  pats  of  cement  mixed  with  only  so  much  water  as  will  turn  the 
color  of  the  cement.  The  pats  are  to  be  about  |-inch  thick  in  the 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  15 

center,  and  3  inches  in  diameter,  tapering  to  the  edge,  which  will 
be  as  thin  as  possible.  After  a  day  under  a  damp  cloth,  put  two  of 
the  pats  in  water  for  a  week,  and  leave  two  in  air,  and  examine  for 
symptoms  referred  to  above. 

Should  it  be  possible  to  test  the  material  chemically,  the  follow- 
ing points  should  be  observed : 

The  lime  should  be  slightly  over  3  times  the  silica.  Thus,  if 
there  is  20  per  cent  silica,  the  lime  should  run  from  60  to  62  per  cent; 
this  is  a  good  balance.  The  silica  should  not  fall  below  19  per  cent, 
nor  rise  above  22  per  cent,  which  is  about  the  range  of  good  cements 
on  the  market. 

More  than  2  per  cent  of  sulphur  should  never  be  allowed.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  "setting"  of  cement  is  a  process  in  which  the 
various  materials  combined  unite  chemically  to  form  one  solid  mass. 
Sulphur  in  its  various  forms  is  an  ingredient  which  does  not  work 
in  harmony  with  the  other  materials;  and  while  it  does  not  at  once 
prevent  the  satisfactory  combination  and  setting  of  the  other  materials, 
yet,  under  conditions  that  are  very  likely  to  prevail,  it  sets  up  a  chem- 
ical action  tending  to  disintegrate  the  mass  in  time. 

Magnesia  can  generally  be  considered  an  ingredient  which  has 
no  value  either  as  sand  or  cement,  being  what  is  known  as  "inert" 
material.  While  4  per  cent  may  not  injure  masonry,  wearing  surfaces 
should  not  have  over  3  per  cent. 

The  manufacturers  of  Portland  cement  have  tried  to  eliminate 
both  of  these  ingredients — but  so  far  without  success — at  a  cost  which 
would  make  it  possible  to  sell  the  cement  at  a  profit. 

The  specific  gravity  should  not  fall  below  3.10,  as  a  low  specific 
gravity  indicates  poor  burning  of  the  clinker.  These  later  tests, 
however,  are  delicate  laboratory  operations,  and  only  experienced 
chemists  are  capable  of  getting  satisfactory  results. 

Non-staining  Cements.  There  is  a  very  general  prejudice  against 
the  use  of  the  ordinary  Portland  cement  for  setting  limestone,  sand- 
stone, and  marble,  the  theory  being  that  the  moisture  from  the  mixture, 
in  getting  away,  travels  through  the  stone,  carrying  with  it  certain  stain- 
ing matter,  which  is  either  deposited  on  the  surface  or  unites  chemically 
with  ingredients  in  the  air  to  stain  the  face.  Thus  there  have  come 
to  be  used  certain  materials  of  much  less  structural  value  than  the 
Portland  cement.  These  are  called  non-staining  cements,  and  are 


821 


16  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

sold  at  a  high  price.  There  are  also  on  the  market  many  materials 
intended  to  be  put  on  the  back  of  stone,  which  the  manufacturers 
claim  will  prevent  the  passage  of  moisture  and  staining  matter. 
While  it  can  easily  be  demonstrated  that  water  containing  cement 
running  over  the  face  of  soft  stones  does  leave  distinct  traces,  it  is  a 
different  thing  to  show  that  such  stone  or  marble  can  be  stained  by 
materials  in  the  joints  or  on  the  back.  It  is  well,  before  any  amount 
of  money  is  spent,  to  experiment  in  producing  the  stain  on  the  stone 
used  with  the  ordinary  cement. 

A  small  box  can  be  filled  with  soft  mortar,  and  a  piece  of  stone 
or  marble  laid  therein  so  that  the  top  surface  is  $  inch  above  the 
mortar.  Then,  by  tacking  a  piece  of  waterproof  paper  to  the  box 
sides,  and  cutting  a  hole  somewhat  smaller  than  the  upper  face  of 
the  stone  or  marble  sample  used,  and  by  weights  bringing  the  inner 
edge  of  the  paper  to  the  stone  so  that  practically  no  moisture  can  pass 
except  through  the  sample  and  off  from  the  exposed  surface,  the  results 
of  the  so-called  staining  qualities  of  ordinary  cement  can  be  observed. 

LUMBER  FOR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  FINISH 

Local  conditions  affect  lumber  very  much.  While  the  great 
lumber  interests  formulate  and  publish  schedules  of  grades,  the  user 
cannot,  from  their  designations  and  descriptions  of  grades  alone, 
make  an  economical  selection.  The  designations  "first  "  or  "best 
quality,"  "without  imperfections,"  etc.,  inserted  in  specifications 
to  describe  the  quality  desired,  tend  to  get  all  concerned  into  trouble 
on  account  of  the  various  meanings  put  on  these  terms. 

Some  markets  are  well  supplied  with  good  spruce  framing  lum- 
ber, while  an  adjoining  section  will  have  no  spruce,  but  good,  rough 
pine  or  hemlock.  The  same  differences  will  be  found  relative  to 
finishing  lumber.  The  student  should  visit  each  lumber  yard;  look 
over  the  stocks;  find  the  materials  in  that  market,  how  they  are  graded, 
so  that  he  can  in  specifications  state  just  what  imperfections  can  be 
allowed  in  framing  timber,  boards,  or  finishing  lumber,  always  bearing 
in  mind  that  there  is  no  material  in  existence  which  is  free  from 
imperfections.  By  observing  the  imperfections  and  stating  clearly 
what  will  be  allowed  and  what  will  not,  he  can  avoid  very  many  un- 
pleasant misunderstandings,  with  the  owner  especially,  and  also  with 
the  builder. 


222 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  17 

Lumber  which  has  the  largest  number  of  good  qualities  is  the 
most  expensive;  therefore,  for  each  portion  of  the  work,  material 
should  be  required  having  only  the  particular  qualities  required  for 
the  station. 

Since,  in  the  case  of  lumber,  the  questions  of  grade,  quality,  etc., 
can  be  determined  by  observation  rather  than  by  such  experiments 
as  are  indicated  for  cement  or  sand,  these  matters  will  not  be  further 
treated  here;  but  in  the  following  specifications,  there  will  be  illus- 
trated what  consideration  should  be  given  generally  to  lumber  grades, 
quality,  and  finishes. 

ROOFS 

In  the  previous  examples  or  problems,  attention  has  been  given 
to  putting  the  student  in  line  of  thinking  in  materials.  Under  this 
heading,  consideration  will  be  given  to  the  combination  of  materials 
in  a  roof  covering,  partly  because  a  good  roof  is  one  of  the  prime 
necessities  of  a  successful  structure,  and  also  because,  in  a  brief  study 
of  one  type  of  roof  of  which  a  model  can  easily  be  constructed,  the 
elements  of  how  to  think  in  construction,  within  the  province  of  the 
specification  can  be  clearly  illustrated.  The  particular  covering 
considered  is  canvas.  Undoubtedly  each  student  is  familiar  with  the 
use  of  canvas,  as  a  deck  covering  for  steamships,  sailing  vessels, 
etc.,  down  to  the  small  duck-boat  completely  constructed  of  canvas; 
but  it  is  possible  that  few  have  ever  considered  the  various  steps 
necessary  to  make  it  available  for  water  and  wear-resisting  uses. 

Canvas  is  a  material  which,  in  its  natural  condition,  is  far  from 
waterproof,  and  is  one  of  the  materials  most  easily  and  quickly 
destroyed  by  mildew.  Its  one  original  desirable  quality  is  its  extreme 
strength  and  toughness.  Therefore  there  must  be  incorporated 
with  this  tough  material,  the  properties  of  resisting  the  passage  of 
water  and  the  ravages  of  decay.  Take  a  good  sample  of  10-oz. 
duck;  put  it  on  a  board,  and  strike  a  dozen  times  in  one  place;  take 
up,  rub  in  the  hands,  and  observe  how  little  damage  has  been  done  to 
the  texture. 

Build  up  of  f-inch  matched  flooring  dressed  on  the  upper  side, 
a  board  about  3  feet  square,  putting  2  by  4-inch  cleats  on  the  under 
side.  These  cleats  represent  the  rafters,  the  |-inch  stuff  the  roof 
boards.  Obtain  from  different  stores  samples  of  10-oz.  duck,  and 


18  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

mark  each  for  identification,  making  a  schedule  in  which  the  price 
of  each  is  noted.  Cut  all  samples  to  exactly  the  same  size;  and,  after 
drying  thoroughly  to  drive  off  all  moisture,  get  them  weighed  by  a 
druggist  on  very  accurate  scales,  and  on  the  schedule  note  the  weight 
of  each  piece.  Soak  and  wash  each  thoroughly,  rubbing  so  as  to 
remove  all  size  or  filling  soluble  in  water.  After  thoroughly  drying, 
have  each  carefully  weighed  again,  and  note  the  weights  on  the 
schedule.  From  this  schedule  can  easily  be  determined,  which  is  the 
best  for  the  money.  It  may  be  found,  for  example,  after  soaking 
out  all  soluble  matter,  that  the  material  which  costs  18  cents  a  yard 
is  considerably  cheaper  than  that  costing  17  cents. 

A  choice  having  been  made,  buy  a  yard ;  and,  when  thoroughly 
dry,  secure  it  with  ordinary  tacks  about  f-inch  long,  spaced 
one  inch  apart,  to  the  boards  prepared,  stretching  it  as  much 
as  possible  so  that  it  will  be  tight  and  flat.  Wet  it  thoroughly 
and  observe  that  wetting  has  a  tendency  to  shrink  it;  but,,  as  it 
cannot  shrink  on  account  of  being  securely  nailed  to  the  board, 
each  thread  is  drawn  very  tight  and  made  smaller.  By  exam- 
ining closely,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  spaces  between  the  threads 
are  increased  and  that  water  will  run  through  as  through  a  sieve. 
When  in  this  condition,  put  on  a  good  coat  of  white  lead  and  oil 
paint  (this  is  about  the  only  material  which  should  be  painted  wet), 
and  observe  that  a  large  amount  of  paint  is  taken  up;  in  fact,  through 
the  openings  between  the  threads,  the  paint  goes,  reaching  and  cover- 
ing the  underside  of  the  cotton.  The  water  will  not  unite  with  the 
paint,  and  passes  off  before  the  paint  dries,  allowing  the  threads  to 
swell  into  the  soft  paint,  so  that  when  the  paint  is  dry  the  fabric  is 
practically  embedded  in  paint,  with  less  on  the  upper  surface  than 
anywhere  else.  Two  more  coats  on  top  furnish  the  necessary  pro- 
tection. This  treatment  protects  the  canvas  from  mildew  and  makes 
it  waterproof;  the  original  fabric  furnishes  the  strength. 

After  the  paint  is  dry,  subject  the  sample  to  the  harshest  of 
treatment.  Grind  with  the  heel,  drop  bricks,  etc.,  to  see  just  how 
much  it  will  resist;  if  not  successful  in  making  a  hole,  use  a  hatchet, 
patch  the  hole  so  made  by  tacking  over  it  a  piece  of  duck  of  sufficient 
size  to  cover  it;  and  wet  it,  paint  it,  etc.,  as  before.  When  dry,  place 
the  boards  level,  nail  down  1-inch  strips  around  the  edge,  laid  in  white 
lead,  and  cover  with  one  inch  cf  water.  Let  this  stand  for  forty- 


224 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  19 

eight  hours.  Now  cut  up  the  duck,  and  see  if  any  leaks  exist;  if  so, 
carefully  examine  the  covering  to  determine  exactly  the  cause.  Next, 
roll  the  duck  loosely,  and  put  away  for  two  weeks  in  a  dark,  damp 
place,  and  then  examine  for  mildew. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  above  problem  merely  to  explain 
how  a  canvas  roof  is  made,  but  to  set  the  student  to  thinking  about 
roofs.  A  shingle  roof,  or  a  tar-and-gravel  roof,  or  a  slate  roof,  differs 
from  the  above  only  in  the  manner  in  which  it  accomplishes  the  same 
ends;  and  all  other  styles  should  be  observed  and  studied  along  similar 
lines,  so  that  the  proper  material  will  be  used  in  each  of  the  different 
varieties  of  buildings. 

USE  OF  WORDS  AND  GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS 

It  should  be  the  object  of  every  specification  writer  to  have  the 
words  as  exact  in  the  expression  of  requirements  relative  to  materials 
as  are  the  drawings  in  showing  their  forms;  and  no  more  words  should 
be  used  than  are  absolutely  necessary  to  indicate  the  full  meaning. 
Frequently,  after  completing  the  specification,  it  is  gone  over  to  make 
additions.  It  is  far  better  to  go  over  it  to  see  how  much  can  be  cut  out 
— which  operation  will  often  astonish  the  writer  by  showing  how 
many  useless  words  and  duplicate  requirements  have  been  inserted 
in  the  original. 

Generally  speaking,  adjectives  and  adverbs  and  all  general 
description  should  be  dispensed  with.  A  requirement  that  work  shall 
be  finished  "in  the  best  manner"  means  very  little.  A  reasonable 
interpretation  of  "best"  work  for  a  house  costing  $1,500.00,  would 
be  entirely  unsuitable  for  a  house  costing  $15,000.00;  and  as  all 
through  the  scale  the  meaning  varies,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  con- 
tractor influenced  by  his  intent  to  make  a  profit,  and  the  owner 
influenced  by  his  desire  to  get  his  money's  worth,  will  have  very 
widely  separated  views  relative  to  what  the  "best"  is;  and  the  architect 
is  apt  to  get  the  ill-will  of  both  in  attempting  to  decide  the  question. 

The  fact  is  that  the  term  "best"  is  open  to  a  great  variety  of 
interpretations.  If  an  oak  moulded  panel  is  to  be  finished  in  the 
"best"  manner,  we  think  of  it  as  constructed  with  perfect  symmetry 
of  outline,  thoroughly  smoothed,  with  all  machine  marks  removed, 
and  filled  so  as  to  change  the  texture  cf  the  surface,  coated  and 
polished  with  four  or  five  coats  of  varnish.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 


20  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

a  carved  panel  is  described  as  finished  in  the  best  manner,  we  conceive 
something  quite  the  reverse.  Although  it  is  of  oak  and  intended  for 
the  same  room,  it  must  lack  the  machine  symmetry,  and  must  have  a 
freedom  in  the  carving  in  which  each  member  shows  independence 
of  form;  the  tool  marks  should  remain;  and  under  no  circumstances 
should  the  work  be  smoothed  off  with  sandpaper  or  have  a  rubbed 
finish.  These  differences  of  meaning  in  the  same  word  or  term  are 
not  understood  generally;  and  the  workmen,  contractors,  and  owners 
get  hopelessly  at  odds. 

In  mentioning  materials,  they  should  be  treated  in  classes,  with 
no  attempt  to  designate  where  each  should  be  used  (this  designation 
is  the  province  of  the  drawings).  If  an  attempt  is  made  to  designate 
where  materials  are  to  go,  and  for  any  reason  every  single  point  is  not 
covered  in  making  such  designations  in  the  specifications,  such 
omission  is  taken  as  an  excuse  by  the  contractor  for  an  extra. 

It  is  sometimes  held  that  the  specification  should  be  considered 
as  a  sort  of  index  of  all  the  labor  and  materials  required  in  the  struc- 
ture, and  that  any  items  not  mentioned  in  this  index  cannot  be 
required.  This  feature,  however,  is, the  province  of  the  "Bill  of 
Quantities,"  which  in  this  country  is  always  prepared  by  the  contractor 
for  his  own  use,  and  not  by  the  architect.  The  contractor  makes  up 
the  bill  of  quantities  from  the  drawings  and  specifications  which  latter, 
together  show  the  shape,  size,  and  quality,  but  which  should  never 
attempt  to  state  the  quantity  in  detail. 

There  are  certain  items  that  cannot  be  shown  on  the  drawings 
or  required  by  the  specification,  which  must  be  covered  in  a  general 
way — such  as  nails  and  screws;  but  when  something  more  than  the 
ordinary  practice  is  needed,  this  should  be  mentioned.  Thus,  floor 
lining  should  be  secured  by  lOd  nails  not  over  3  inches  apart  over 
each  joist.  Matched  sheathing  should  have  two  8d  nails  to  each 
board,  over  each  stud.  Window  stops  should  be  secured  by  round- 
headed  blued  screws  set  not  over  10  inches  apart.  While  for  such 
items  as  the  finished  floor,  casings,  etc.,  there  is  no  necessity  for 
specifying  the  number  or  size  of  nails,  it  should  be  stated  that  they  are 
to  be  so  placed  that  the  heads  will  be  invisible  in  natural  finished 
work,  and  puttied  in  painted  work. 

However  many  general  clauses  may  be  inserted  requiring  con- 
tractors to  do  f.nd  provide  work  and  materials  necessary  for  unfore- 


226 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  21 

seen  exigencies;  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  and  almost  universal 
rule,  that,  when  the  work  and  materials  are  not  clearly  set  forth,  the 
owner  has  to  pay  the  bill. 

Where  work  is  to  be  divided  so  that  a  contract  is  let  for  the 
masonry,  carpentry,  plumbing,  and  heating  to  separate  contractors, 
the  lines  in  which  they  are  to  co-operate  must  be  most  clearly  drawn, 
and  the  special  provinces  of  each  defined. 

If  contract  is  to  be  awarded  to  one  person  who  is  to  furnish  the 
structure  complete,  then  the  matter  of  what  work  is  to  be  done  by  this 
or  that  sub-contractor  should  be  omitted  entirely.  The  general 
contractor  must  be  held  responsible  for  results,  and  there  should  be 
no  dictation  as  to  which  of  his  sub-contractors  should  do  certain 
parts;  nor  is  it  the  business  of  the  architect  or  the  owner  to  dictate 
how  the  different  sub-contractors  shall  co-operate.  If  results  are 
unsatisfactory  from  any  reason,  the  contractor  will  always  urge  the 
plausible  excuse  that  his  affairs  in  the  management  of  the  work  were 
so  interfered  with  that  he  was  unable  to  do  the  work  as  he  wished 
or  agreed. 

ELECTRIC  WIRING 

The  item  of  Electric  Wiring,  while  entirely  within  the  province 
of  the  architect  to  lay  out,  is  of  such  a  mechanical  nature  that  it  is 
rarely  advisable  to  include  it  in  the  general  specification.  Few  general 
rules  outside  of  a  set  adopted  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers— called  the  "National  Electric  Code" — can  be  formulated. 

The  arrangement,  location,  and  sizes  of  wires  are  problems  of 
delicate  adjustment  in  order  to  obviate  danger  from  fire,  to  prevent 
loss  of  power,  and  to  obtain  a  perfectly  satisfactory  service  at  all 
points  under  the  maximum  load,  and  yet  keep  the  amount  of  material 
down  so  as  not  to  involve  unnecessary  expense. 

Expensive  instruments  are  necessary  for  the  testing  of  the  system 
when  complete,  and  a  considerable  experience  is  needed  even  for 
stating  in  a  specification  what  tests  are  to  be  applied  in  each  specific 
case.  Therefore  it  is  not  deemed  best  to  discuss  the  matter  further 
here,  except  to  state  that,  for  work  such  as  that  under  consideration, 
the  services  of  an  engineer  in  the  employ  of  the  Electric  Light  Com- 
pany which  is  to  furnish  the  energy  can  generally  be  obtained  to  lay 
out  the  system  and  test  the  completed  work. 


227 


22  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

In  studying  the  following  outline  specification,  it  is  suggested 
that  many  trade  papers  and  the  general  magazines  advertise  appli- 
ances used  in  building;  and  a  [postal-card  request  to  the  advertisers 
will  bring  very  useful  information  about  the  product  advertised.  In 
these  lines,  are  cement,  concrete  work,  stone,  brick,  paints,  varnishes, 
plastering  material,  plumbing  goods,  and  heating  goods. 

Catalogues  of  the  two  last  are  particularly  to  be  obtained.  If 
the  influence  of  any  such  literature  is  such  that  the  student  finds 
himself  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  material  or  system  under 
consideration  is  the  best  of  anything  in  that  line,  then  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  literature  of  other  materials  or  systems 
which  are  used  for  the  same  purpose,  until  he  finds  some  which  he 
is  satisfied  are  equal  to  it  in  every  particular.  The  man  who  has  only 
one  material  he  can  use,  or  one  way  of  accomplishing  a  certain  object, 
is  sure  to  be  either  deficient  in  information  or  unduly  influenced,  for 
there  is  no  one  material,  or  one  way  of  doing  anything,  that  is  "best" 
in  all  respects. 

The  student  should  also  have  a  copy  of  some  of  the  many  hand- 
books of  general  information  relative  to  materials.  Of  these,  probably 
"Trautwine"  will  be  found  the  most  useful;  for,  while  it  is  not  so 
popular  as  some,  it  is  a  high  authority,  and  in  it  will  be  found  notes 
on  every  variety  of  material  and  construction. 

SPECIFICATIONS* 

FOR  A  RESIDENCE  BUILDING  TO  BE  ERECTED  FOR 

JOHN    DOE 

AT  THE   CORNER   OF   A   AVENUE   AND   B   STREET,    CHICAGO,    ILLINOIS 

Richard  Roc,  Architect 
GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

Contract  Drawings.  The  drawings  which  will  with  this  specifi- 
cation form  the  basis  of  an  agreement  for  the  erection  and  completion 
of  a  residence  for  John  Doe,  to  be  erected  at  the  corner  of  A  Avenue 
and  B  Street,  are  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  to  a  scale  of  |  inch  tj 
the  foot;  and  details,  20,  21,  22,  23,  to  a  scale  of  1£  inches;  and  all 


*  NOTE.— These  "Specifications"  cover  the  following  pages  of  text  up  to  and  includ- 
ing page  44. 


228 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  23 

materials  and  work  necessary  to  complete  the  structure  indicated, 
are  to  be  furnished  and  done  by  the  Contractor. 

Detail  Drawings.  Full-sized  details  and  models  will  be  furnished 
as  the  work  progresses,  and  no  work  requiring  them  is  to  be  done 
before  their  delivery.  In  their  preparation,  minor  modifications  will 
be  made  which  do  not  materially  affect  the  cost  of  execution;  and 
they  will  be  delivered  to  the  Contractor  within  the  following  periods 
after  the  award  of  the  contract:  those  which  affect  the  construction 
of  exterior  walls,  cornice,  roof,  or  internal  framing,  six  weeks;  those 
for  interior  finish,  four  months;  those  for  carving  on  material  in  place, 
six  months. 

Changes.  No  alterations  shall  be  made  involving  change  in 
cost,  unless  qrdered  by  the  Architect  in  writing,  setting  forth  fully 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  change,  the  terms  and  conditions  under 
which  it  is  to  be  made,  to  which  the  assent  of  both  Owner  and  Con- 
tractor is  to  be  attached. 

The  Architect  will,  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  give  oral 
directions  relative  thereto;  but  such  directions  will  never  be  considered 
as  authorizing  changes. 

Accepted  and  Rejected  Materials.  The  decision  of  the  Architect 
wTill  be  final  relative  to  the  work  or  materials  furnished,  and  that 
rejected  is  to  be  removed  promptly  from  the  site.  It  will  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  every  item  furnished  in  place  in  the  building 
which  is  covered  by  a  payment,  is  considered  as  accepted,  and  will 
not  be  later  rejected  unless  defects  develop  which  were  not  visible 
prior  to  the  payment;  and  when,  for  such  cause,  material  is  rejected, 
the  entire  expense  incident  to  replacing  the  material  is  to  be  borne 
by  the  Contractor. 

Responsibility  of  Contractor.  The  Contractor  is  to  be  entirely 
responsible  for  producing  the  finished  work  in  place;  and  in  carrying 
it  out,  he  is  to  furnish  all  tools  and  temporary  appliances  to  accom- 
plish the  contract  requirements,  and  also  heat,  so  that  after  the  first 
plaster  coat  is  begun  no  part  of  the  building  shall  be  allowed  to  have 
a  temperature  lower  than  40°  F.  If  plastering  is  done  in  hot,  dry 
weather,  he  is  to  protect  the  building  with  such  temporary  closures 
as  will  prevent  injury  from  too  rapid  evaporation.  He  is  to  be 
responsible  for  the  protection,  not  only  of  all  material  delivered  on 
the  site,  but  also  of  all  materials  in  place,  until  the  final  accept- 


229 


24  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

ance  of  the  building  as  evidenced  by  the  final  payment  on  the  contract 
and  the  delivery  of  the  structure  to  the  Owner.  As  this  responsi- 
bility extends  to  loss  by  fire,  he  is  to  keep  the  building  fully  insured 
in  Stock  Insurance  Companies,  the  loss,  if  any,  payable  to  the  owner 
as  his  interest  may  appear;  and  the  total  amount  of  such  insurance 
shall  never  be  less  than  a  sum  20  per  cent  higher  than  the  total  amount 
of  the  payments  made;  and  prior  to  each  payment,  the  Contractor 
shall  deliver  to  the  Owner  such  policies.  The  Contractor  shall, 
if  required  by  the  Owner  four  days  prior  to  the  time  any  payment  is 
due,  produce  evidence  satisfactory  to  the  Owner  that  such  settle- 
ments have  been  made  as  will  clear  the  premises  from  the  liability 
of  liens  on  account  of  either  labor  or  materials  furnished;  and  in 
case  the  Contractor  fails  to  produce  such  evidence,  the  Owner  is 
not  under  any  obligations  to  make  the  payment  until  his  demand 
is  complied  with.  If  the  demand  is  not  made  by  the  Owner  four  days 
prior  to  the  day  any  payment  is  due,  the  Contractor  will  not  be 
obliged  to  furnish  evidence  for  the  payment  then  coming  due;  but 
the  right  to  demand  the  evidence  before  any  subsequent  payment 
is  made  will  continue  to  exist,  so  that  the  Owner  may  demand  such 
evidence  prior  to  any  future  payment. 

City  Laws.  The  Contractor,  without  the  intervention  of  either 
Owner  or  Architect,  'is  to  comply  with  all  City  Ordinances  for  the 
regulation  of  building  on  private  property  and  the  temporary  use  of 
highways  beyond  the  building  lines. 

Employer's  Liability  Insurance.  Should  any  person  either 
employed  by  him  or  not,  or  any  property,  be  injured  in  any  of  the 
operations  in  connection  with  the  building  or  through  his  careless- 
ness or  that  of  any  of  his  employees,  he  is  to  be  responsible  therefor; 
and  therefore  he  is  to  carry  at  all  times  Employers'  Liability  Insur- 
ance which  will  cover  up  to  $5,000.00  the  damage  to  any  one  person, 
either  of  the  public  or  of  those  in  his  employ. 

Ladders  and  Scaffold.  The  Contractor  is  to  maintain  at  all 
times  such  ladders  and  scaffolding  as  will  afford  the  Owner  or 
Architect  access  to  all  portions  of  the  work. 

Samples.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  award  of  the  contract 
the  Contractor  is  to  deliver  or?  the  site  samples  of  all  materials  required 
in  connection  therewith.  Such  samples  are  to  indicate  the  range 
he  proposes  to  use,  by  one  of  the  poorest  quality  and  one  of  the  best 


230 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  25 

in  each  class,  with  the  understanding  that  the  material  furnished 
is  to  run  between  the  two  so  that  the  average  of  the  material  furnished 
will  be  practically  the  average  between  the  two  samples. 

The  Architect  will  pass  on  these  samples;  and  after  acceptance 
by  him,  they  will  be  kept  forTguidance  in  passing  on  the  material  when 
delivered.  If  any  of  the  samples,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Architect, 
are  not  in  accord  with  the  contract  requirements,  he  will  reject  such 
in  writing,  setting  forth  fully  his  reasons,  and  the  Contractor  is  to 
furnish  additional  samples  in  lieu  of  those  rejected,  until  materials 
suitable  in  the  judgment  of  the  Architect  are  submitted.  In  execut- 
ing the  work,  the  poorer  materials  are  to  be  placed  in  the  minor 
portions  of  the  work  as  selected  by  the  Architect. 

Contractor's  Foreman.  The  Contractor  is  to  have  a  repre- 
sentative fully  empowered  to  act  in  all  cases  for  him  on  the  site  when- 
ever any  work  is  in  progress  or  material  being  delivered ;  and  neither 
the  Owner  nor  the  Architect  will  give  to  anyone,  except  such  repre- 
sentative, any  directions  or  instructions.  Should  such  representative 
not  give  proper  attention  to  such  directions  or  instructions,  such 
neglect  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  Owner 
to  make  further  payments  until  the  settlement  of  the  questions 
involved. 

The  protection  by  the  Contractor,  of  trees,  sidewalk,  curb, 
adjoining  property,  etc.,  as  required  hereinafter,  will  not  relieve 
the  Contractor  from  responsibility  for  any  injury  which  may  occur 
to  such  protected  items  on  account  of  the  building  operations. 

The  Drawings.  It  is  the  intention  that  the  general  scheme  for 
the  work  shall  be  illustrated  by  the  drawings,  on  which  all  dimensions 
and  sizes  are  given.  When  features  or  details  are  evidently  of  a 
similar  nature  to  those  already  shown,  they  will  not  be  carried  out 
in  detail;  but  in  all  such  cases  the  Contractor  will  complete  the 
work  in  accordance  with  the  evident  intent  of  the  drawings. 

The  materials  are  in  general  designated;  and  when  the  drawings 
are  competent  to  show  fully  what  is  required,  it  will  not  be  within 
the  province  of  the  specification,  or  details  to  be  prepared  later,  to 
make  further  reference  thereto. 

The  Specification.  It  is  the  intention  that  this  specification 
shall  cover  those  material  points  only  which  the  drawings  are  not 
competent  to  cover;  and  the  fact  that  certain  items  are  indicated 


231 


26  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

on  the  drawings,  and  not  mentioned  herein,  will  not  relieve  the 
Contractor  from  furnishing  them.  It  is  the  intention  that  the  draw- 
ings and  this  specification  shall  so  co-operate  that  all  matters  in 
connection  with  the  proposed  structure  necessary  for  making  accurate 
estimates  for  the  completion  of  the  building,  shall  be  fully  set  forth. 
There  are,  however,  certain  operations  and  materials  evidently 
necessary  for  the  construction;  and  unless  these  are  of  unusual 
nature,  no  mention  thereof  will  be  made,  but  such  fact  will  not  relieve 
the  Contractor  from  his  obligation  to  provide  for  all  such  items. 

The  Architect.  The  Architect  is  the  technical  adviser  for  the 
Owner,  and  will  have  the  general  direction  and  oversight  of  the 
building  operations,  with  the  right  conceded  by  both  Owner  and 
Contractor  to  accept  or  reject  finally  materials  or  workmanship,  to 
decide  the  amount  due  at  each  payment  period,  and  to  determine 
when  the  Contractor  has  complied  with  the  conditions  of  his  agree- 
ment. 

He  is  not  to  be  responsible  for  such  items  as  whether  or  not 
liability  for  liens  exists,  or  for  such  other  matters  of  business  detail 
as  do  not  require  the  technical  training  for  architectural  practice. 

As  the  Architect  must  depend  on  the  clear  requirements  of  the 
drawings  and  specifications  for  his  authority  in  exercising  his  duties, 
it  is  desirable  that  all  questions  which  may  arise  be  fully  settled 
therein,  so  far  as  practicable,  before  the  submission  of  bids.  There- 
fore all  parties  who  propose  to  submit  bids  should,  in  writing,  call 
attention  to  any  points  which  in  their  judgment  are  not  fully  explain- 
ed by  the  drawings  and  specifications,  at  least  six  days  before  that 
set  for  receipt  of  proposals;  and  such  questions,  with  the  replies 
thereto,  will  be  forwarded  to  each  prospective  bidder;  and  the  failure 
of  any  bidder  to  ask  for  such  supplementary  information  will  be 
construed,  after  the  award  of  the  contract,  as  barring  him  from 
demurring  from  any  ruling  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  Architect  is 
justified  by  the  contract  requirements.  In  any  questions  of  a 
technical  character  which  may  arise  between  the  Owner  and  Con- 
tractor, the  Owner  will  be  governed  by  the  decision  of  the  Architect. 

Payments.  Before  beginning  the  work,  the  Contractor,  if  he 
so  desires,  can  prepare  for  the  Architect  a  statement  showing  the 
order  in  which  he  will  proceed  with  the  construction  of  the  building; 
and  a  schedule  of  the  quantities  of  all  items  entering  into  the  work, 


232 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  27 

with  the  value  of  each  in  place — the  total  of  such  values  to  be  the 
contract  price.  If,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Architect,  this  schedule 
is  perfectly  fair,  it  will  be  adopted  as  a  basis  of  the  monthly  estimate 
of  the  value  of  the  work  satisfactorily  in  place;  and  on  he  3rd 
day  of  each  month,  the  Owner  will  pay  on  the  contract  price  90  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  materials  satisfactorily  in  place  on  the  1st, 
as  determined  by  the  schedule;  but  in  these  estimates,  no  account 
will,  under  any  circumstances,  be  taken  of  the  value  of  materials  not 
finally  incorporated  in  the  building. 

If,  however,  the  Contractor  does  not  elect  to  prepare  such  a 
schedule,  or  prepares  a  schedule  evidently  not  fair  to  the  Owner, 
then  the  Owner  will  pay  to  the  Contractor  on  the  3rd  of  each  month 
90  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  materials  satisfactorily  in  place,  as 
determined  by  the  Architect's  estimate;  and  in  determining  the  value, 
the  Architect  is  to  be  governed  by  the  total  contract  price,  so  that 
at  all  times  there  will  be  reserved  by  the  Owner  sufficient  funds  to 
complete  the  building,  in  case  of  default  on  the  part  of  the  Con- 
tractor, at  usual  market  rates,  and  in  addition  10  per  cent. 

Time.  The  time  limit  for  the  completion  of  the  work  will  be 
nine  months  from  the  date  of  award  of  contract;  and  it  will  be  a 
condition  of  the  contract,  that  there  will  be  deducted  from  the  final 
payment  the  sum  of  fifteen  dollars  as  liquidated  damages  for  each 
day's  delay  after  the  expiration  of  such  period,  until  the  final  accept- 
ance of  the  work  by  the  Architect  and  its  delivery  to  the  Owner. 

The  Site.  Put  a  tight  board  fence  5  feet  high,  with  three  2-inch 
by  4-inch  rails,  and  with  4-inch  by  4-inch  posts  set  6  feet  on  centers 
which  will  protect  adjoining  property  from  encroachments  during 
building  operations. 

On  the  street  side,  and  in  front  of  the  spot  to  be  occupied  by 
the  building  on  the  Avenue,  enclose  such  portion  of  the  roadway 
as  is  permitted  by  the  City  building  ordinance  to  be  used  in  building 
operations,  with  such  fence — also  place  such  walks — as  are  required 
by  such  ordinance. 

On  the  site  is  one  oak  tree,  and  in  the  street  two  elm  trees. 
These  are  to  be  protected  by  tree  boxes  of  2-inch  plank  and  2-inch 
by  4-inch  cleats,  with  such  holes  cut  on  sides  as  will  permit  a  full 
circulation  of  air  about  the  trunk;  and  under  no  circumstances  are 


28  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

any  guy  ropes  to  be  secured  to,  or  allowed  to  interfere  with,  any 
portion  of  the  trees. 

There  will  be  no  attempt  to  save  any  of  the  sod  or  shrubs  now 
on  the  site,  and  the  Contractor  will  be  allowed  all  the  space  for  piling 
material,  etc. 

Excavation.  Four  test-pits  have  been  dug  to  a  point  1  foot 
below  the  bottom  of  all  footings;  and  bidders  should  visit  the  site 
and  examine  the  conditions.  The  black  soil  which  constitutes  the 
top  stratum  is  all  to  be  piled  on  the  lot  wherever  the  Contractor 
desires,  so  long  as  it  is  not  against  the  oak  tree.  Below  the  black 
soil  is  a  stratum  of  sand  which  is  satisfactory  for  concrete  and  cement 
mortar;  below  this  is  coarse  gravel  which  may  be  used  for  concrete, 
provided  all  stones  which  will  not  pass  through  a  2-inch  ring  are 
cracked  to  such  size.  Any  other  material  to  be  taken  from  the  exca- 
vation is  worthless,  and  must  be  hauled  away. 

The  excavation  is  to  be  carried  on  so  that  different  strata  will 
be  kept  in  separate  piles.  Any  materials  mixed  so  as  to  make  it 
undesirable  in  the  opinion  of  the  Architect  to  use  them  for  the  pur- 
poses above  designated,  are  to  be  hauled  away. 

The  curbstone  in  place  is  to  be  protected  so  that  there  will  be 
no  settlement  or  shifting  before  the  supporting  wall  is  completed, 
by  sheet  piling  driven  down  just  back  of  the  inside  of  curb  line. 

The  other  sides  of  the  excavations  will  be  sloped  enough  to 
prevent  caving. 

The  excavation  will  not  go  below  the  party  wall  of  adjoining 
building. 

All  excavation  for  footings  must  be  complete  before  any  footings 
are  placed. 

Backfilling.  After  all  foundation  walls  are  completed  and 
thoroughly  set,  backfilling  is  to  be  done  with  sand  or  gravel. 

Sewer  and  Water  Connections.  The  sewer  and  water  have 
already  been  brought  on  to  the  site.  The  sewer  terminates  at  a 
brick  manhole,  3  feet  6  inches  inside  diameter,  with  iron  cover  at 
grade  about  5  feet  from  the  side  line  of  the  building;  and  temporary 
connections  with  this  manhole  are  to  be  made,  so  that  there  shall  be 
at  no  time  any  standing  water  in  the  excavation,  should  it  develop 
that  the  gravel  is  a  water-bearing  stratum. 


234 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  29 

The  water  connections  will  be  encountered  in  making  the  wall 
at  the  curb  line,  about  4  feet  below  grade. 

MASONRY    MATERIALS 

[Cement.  All  cement  required  is  to  be  Portland  cement  of  such 
fineness  that  90  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  100-mesh  sieve.  The 
initial  set  shall  be  in  not  less  than  30  minutes;  and  pats  of  neat 
cement  about  3  inches  in  diameter  and  half  an  inch  thick  in  center, 
worked  off  to  a  thin  edge,  exposed  in  air  or  immersed  in  water  for 
seven  days,  after  the  cement  has  set  sufficiently  not  to  be  disintegrat- 
ed by  water,  shall  show  no  discoloration,  warping,  checks,  or  signs  of 
disintegration. 

Sand.  The  sand  shown  to  be  on  the  site  by  the  test-pits  is  of 
sufficiently  good  quality  for  all  masonry  mortar  except  wearing 
surface  of  pavements,  steps,  etc.  Should  there  not  be  enough  thus 
obtained,  that  brought  in  must  be  as  clean  and  sharp  as  that  found 
in  excavating. 

The  sand  for  all  wearing  surfaces  (down  at  least  \  inch),  such  as 
walks,  steps,  and  cellar  and  area  floors,  is  to  be  crushed  granite, 
ranging  from  the  finest  material  to  that  which  will  pass  a  30-mesh 
sieve. 

Broken  Stone.  The  gravel  stratum  may  be  used  for  concrete 
aggregate,  provided  the  sand  and  all  stone  too  large  to  pass  a  2-inch 
ring  are  screened  out.  The  sand  may  be  used  with  other  sand  on 
the  site,  and  the  stone  screened  out  be  broken  to  size  required;  the 
other  material  needed  will  be  equal  to  that  obtained  on  the  site,  and 
the  Contractor  will  not  dig  holes  below  the  finished  grade  lines  to 
obtain  material. 

Brick.  All  common  brick  are  to  be  run  of  the  kiln,  excluding 
all  salmon  brick  which  will  take  up  during  one  hour's  immersion 
in  water  as  much  as  18  per  cent  of  their  weight  in  water.  As  delivered, 
the  hardest  are  to  be  kept  in  piles  for  use  in  backing  exterior  walls 
and  flues;  the  softer  are  to  be  put  in  interior  walls. 

All  facing  brick  are  to  be  light  color,  of  rough  face  texture; 
evenness  of  tone  or  burning  will  not  be  required;  and  the  light  and 
dark  tones  will  be  laid  together,  with  no  attempt  to  keep  the  same 
tones  together;  but  no  brick  will  be  allowed  which  is  soft  enough 


•30  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

to  absorb  over  12  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  water.     The  facing  brick 
are  to  have  full,  square  edges  free  from  chipped  corners. 

Granite.  All  granite  (the  exterior  wall  below  water  table,  and 
front  steps  and  buttresses,  are  to  be  of  granite)  is  to  be  of  light  color, 
free  from  black  knots,  and  is  to  be  finished  4-cut  work.  The  joints  are 
to  be  |  inch  wide,  and  tooled  back  full  for  1  inch  from  exterior  surface; 
and  the  stones  may  be 'as  thin  as  economical  dressing  will  permit. 

Soft  Stone.  From  water  table  up  to  line  of  second  story  window- 
sills,  all  stone  required  is  to  be  a  light  limestone  or  sandstone  with 
a  4-bat-to-the-inch  finish  (consisting  of  4  concave  grooves  to  each 
inch,  made  either  by  hand  or  by  machine),  for  all  vertical  surfaces. 
All  other  surfaces  will  be  rubbed.  The  stone  must  be  of  an  even 
texture,  free  from  seams  or  streaks.  Should  any  material  used  show 
in  a  rubbed  block  any  grain  from  which  the  natural  bed  can  be 
determined,  it  is  to  be  set  so  that  it  will  rest  on  its  natural  bed;  but 
if  the  stone  is  of  such  character  as  to  show  no  such  indications,  it 
will  be  immaterial  whether  it  rests  on  its  natural  bed. 

The  ashlar  may  be  as  thin  as  4  inches,  except  where  reveals  or 
corners  occur.  At  reveals  the  heads  are  to  be  the  full  depth;  and  no 
vertical  joint  in  the  face  of  the  wall  is  to  be  nearer  the  reveal  than 
1  foot,  while  all  caps  and  sills  are  to  be  the  full  depth. 

Terra=cotta.  Structural.  The  interior  faces  of  all  exterior 
brick  walls  are  to  be  furred  with  2-inch  porous  terra-cotta  of  such 
quality  that  a  nail  can  be  driven  therein  without  splitting  and  be 
firmly  held. 

All  flues  are  to  be  lined  with  hard-burned  non-porous  flue 
linings  at  least  f  inch  thick. 

Terra-cotta.  Ornamental.  (Cornice  and  Balustrade).  All 
ornamental  terra-cotta  is  to  have  a  color  similar  to  the  lighter  tones 
of  brick,  with  a  combed  surface  forming  about  6  ribs  to  one  inch. 
It  is  to  be  hard-burned,  with  capacity  to  absorb  not  over  4  per  cent 
of  its  weight  of  water  after  immersion  for  one  hour.  All  approximately 
horizontal  surfaces  are  to  be  made  rough,  to  key  the  cement  coat 
which  it  is  proposed  to  put  above.  The  finished  pieces  are  to  be 
straight  and  unwarped,  and  in  lengths  never  less  than  2  feet  10  inches 
for  continuous  members;  in  projecting  members,  all  vertical  joints 
must  occur  over  bearings.  All  members  with  less  than  2-feet  face 
must  be  in  one  piece.  The  Contractor  must  furnish  shop  drawings 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


for  approval  of  jointing  only ;  no  outlines  are  to  be  modified  thereby, 
and  such  changes  in  the  jointings  may  be  made,  within  the  lines 
above  laid  down,  as  in  the  judgment  of  the  Architect  will  better 
the  construction  or  appearance  of  the  work. 

MASONRY  CONSTRUCTION 

Concrete.  The  concrete  work  of  all  footings  and  exterior 
foundation  walls  below  grade,  will  be  composed  of  1  part 
Portland  cement,  4  parts  sand,  and  7  parts  screened  gravel  or 
broken  stone.  In  order  to  make  these  proportions  efficient,  it 
will  be  necessary,  in  mixing  and  applying  the  materials,  to  use  great 
care.  The  Contractor,  under  direction  of  the  Architect,  will  con- 
struct a  cube  about  18  inches  square,  of  the  mixture,  to  show  its 
possibilities  when  carefully  manipulated;  this  standard  will  be  the 
one  by  which  the  work  will  be  judged,  and  any  portion  of  the  con- 
crete work  which  falls  below  this  standard  will  be  condemned.  The 
sand  and  cement  must  first  be  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  turning  over 
at  least  four  times,  if  no  machine  is  employed,  so  that  no  uncolored 
particles  of  sand  can  be  detected;  after  which,  just  enough  water 
is  to  be  added  to  dampen  the  mass  thoroughly.  The  aggregate  is 
then  to  be  mixed  in,  wet. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  place  plank  forms  for  all  footings  and 
walls;  and  the  concrete  is  to  be  placed  in  such  forms,  and  thoroughly 
rammed.  A  smooth  surface  like  a  spade  is  to  be  forced  down, 
just  inside  the  planking,  to  force  the  aggregate  back  from  both  faces 
of  the  wall  until  clear  mortar  will  only  show.  The  walls  of  each 
portion  are  to  be  carried  up  the  full  height  rapidly,  and  the  planking 
to  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  removed  from  any  part  within  two 
days  after  the  placing  of  the  concrete.  Both  faces  of  the  wall  are  to 
be  finished  smooth  with  a  trowel,  the  surface  being  so  compressed  as 
to  make  it  proof  against  ground  moisture. 

Basement  Floor.  After  the  lining  of  the  first  floor  is  laid,  the 
basement  floor  is  to  be  put  in.  On  the  base  of  concrete  3  inches 
thick,  composed  as  for  footings,  before  it  has  set,  put  a  wearing 
surface  ^  inch  thick,  composed  of  1  part  cement  to  3  parts  crushed 
granite,  troweled  to  a  smooth,  level  surface. 

Reinforced  concrete  beams  and  slab  over  sidewalk  coal-cellar, 
are  to  be  composed  of  1  part  Portland  cement,  3  parts  sand,  and  5 


237 


32  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

parts  gravel  or  broken  stone  which  will  pass  through  a  f-inch  ring. 
This  is  to  be  tamped  in  the  forms  and  around  the  reinforcing  metal, 
to  form  a  solid,  compact  mass.  As  the  strength  of  this  slab  is  depend- 
ent principally  on  the  care  in  mixing  the  material  and  in  placing  it, 
it  must  be  tested  three  weeks  after  it  is  set,  by  placing  five  layers  of 
brick  over  the  entire  surface.  If  under  this  test  it  fails  or  cracks, 
it  is  to  be  removed  and  replaced  at  the  Contractor's  expense. 

After  the  completion  of  the  building,  a  sidewalk  in  all  respects 
matching  that  now  in  place  is  to  be  continued  over  the  concrete  slab, 
and  the  iron  coal-hole  cover-frame  is  to  be  built  in  so  as  to  set  flush 
with  the  surface. 

Brick  Masonry.  Rough  brick  partition  walls  in  basement, 
and  all  chimneys  and  the  backing  of  all  exterior  walls,  will  be  laid 
and  thoroughly  embedded  in  Portland  cement  mortar,  1  part  cement 
to  4  parts  sand;  and  all  brick  are  to  be  thoroughly  drenched  before 
being  laid.  In  backing  up  stone  work,  the  brick  is  to  be  so  bonded 
that  it  can  be  brought  up  approximately  level  with  the  top  of  each 
stone  course;  and  there  is  to  be  placed  in  every  horizontal  stone 
joint  a  sheet  of  No.  24  expanded  metal,  extending  to  within  1  inch 
of  the  face  of  the  stone  and  through  the  full  thickness  of  the  brick 
wall.  This  is  to  be  free  from  rust,  and  at  once  embedded  in  the 
mortar  joints  of  stone  and  brick  to  form  a  reinforced  concrete  bond. 

Every  fifth  course  of  rough  brick  is  to  be  of  headers. 

Where  rough  brick  walls  will  be  exposed  to  view,  the  joints  will 
be  trowel-pointed  and  all  mortar  kept  off  the  face. 

At  the  base  of  ash-pits,  set  doors  8  inches  by  12  inches. 

At  the  base  of  chimney  flues,  set  doors  6  inches  by  8  inches. 

In  each  fireplace  hearth,  there  is  to  be  a  small  ash-dump, 
constructed  entirely  of  cast  iron,  with  cast-iron  frames  built  in  and 
anchored. 

Terra-cotta  pipe  thimbles  are  to  be  built  in,  1  foot  from  the 
finished  ceilings,  as  follows: 

1 — 8-inch  thimble  in  Heater  Cellar, 

1— 6-inch  thimble  in  Laundry, 

1 — 6-inch  thimble  in  Kitchen. 

The  fireplaces  are  to  be  built  complete  with  fire-brick  backs 
and  facings,  all  laid  flat,  as  the  chimney  is  constructed.  Special- 
shaped  firebrick,  with  ends  moulded  so  as  to  conform  to  the  line 


238 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  33 

of  the  facing  and  bevel  of  the  jambs,  are  to  be  used  at  the  angles 
between  facing  and  jambs. 

All  brick  below  the  flat  arch  are  to  be  laid  in  -fire  clay 
with  close  joints;  and  in  each  joint  a  strip  of  No.  24  expanded  metal 
is  to  be  built,  extending  within  £  inch  of  the  face  of  the  brick  and 
leaving  at  least  4  inches  to  build  into  the  mortar  joint  of  backing. 
In  the  throat,  put  cast-iron  flue-stops,  with  dampers  which  can  easily 
be  closed  from  below. 

The  flat  arches  above  are  to  be  laid  in  Portland  cement  mortar, 
with  No.  24  expanded  metal  extending  through  each  joint  to  within 
|  inch  of  exposed  faces  and  sticking  up  4  inches.  When  this  is 
complete,  a  reinforced  concrete  beam  is  to  be  formed  above,  in  which 
the  brick  ties  are  to  be  embedded  in  addition  to  6  strands  of  No.  8 
twisted  wire  fencing. 

The  flue  linings  of  hard  terra-cotta  are  to  be  set  close;  and  any 
which  are  crooked  or  broken  in  handling  will  be  rejected. 

Face  Brick.  Face  brick  willjbe  used  for  the  visible  surfaces  of 
the  exterior  brick  walls  and  chimneys.  Each  course  will  alternate 
headers  and  stretchers,  and  the  facing  and  backing  are  to  be  carried 
up  together  and  of  such  size  brick  that  the  headers  of  every  fifth 
course  will  bond.  The  header  of  all  other  courses  may  be  half- 
brick.  The  joints  will  be  approximately  £  inch  thick,  and  trowel- 
pointed  as  the  work  is  laid;  and  all  mortar  must  be  kept  off  the  face. 

Over  the  windows,  flat  arches  are  to  be  formed,  bonded,  as  re- 
quired for  the  fireplaces,  to  the  concrete  beam  formed  back  of  the 
arch. 

Setting  of  Granite  and  Soft  Stone.  The  joints  are  to  be  f  inch 
thick,  with  expanded  metal  as  required  above  therein,  the  mortar 
to  be  of  the  same  composition  as  for  brick. 

The  contractor  will  be  responsible  for  any  staining  of  the  faces 
of  the  stone.  He  will  be  permitted  to  use  such  brand  of  cement  as 
he  may  consider  safe,  provided  in  the  tests  it  conforms  to  the  require- 
ments of  Portland  cement  as  stated  under  "Cement." 

NOTE  TO  STUDENT.  No.  1. — In  order  that. the  student  may  ascertain 
to  what  extent  he  is  grasping  the  situation,  at  this  point,  and  before  proceeding 
further  with  this  specification,  he  should  spend  at  least  six  hours  on  masonry 
work  in  progress  in  his  vicinity,  observing  work  which  corresponds  to  that 
referred  to  in  this  outline  specification.  He  should  ask  questions  of  such 
foremen  or  workmen  as  he  is  able  to  approach,  regarding  the  details  of  con- 


34  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

struction  and  materials  used.  He  should  see  the  men  who  furnish  the  material, 
and  obtain  from  them  the  prices,  and  also  find  if  there  are  different  grades 
thereof. 

Under  no  circumstances  are  notes  to  be  taken.  The  student  is  to  get 
the  information  in  mind  in  such  a  way  that  he  will  remember  it.  After  the 
conclusion  of  these  investigations,  he  should  allow  four  days  to  elapse,  during 
which  time  he  is  to  think  over  the  situation  as  observed.  After  the  four  days 
of  thinking,  he  should  write  a  specification  not  exceeding  400  words  in  length, 
covering  some  portion  of  the  work  or  materials  observed,  and  giving  special 
attention  to  covering  the  most  ground  possible  with  the  400  words. 

Setting  Terra-cotta — Structural.  All  furring  terra-cotta  is  to  be 
set  in  Portland  cement  mortar.  As  1  to  4  mixture  would  be  too  short 
for  the  thin  edges,  the  mortar  will  be  1  cement  to  2^  sand;  and  one 
30d-spike  is  to  be  driven  into  the  brick  mortar  joints,  with  head 
projecting  1^  inches  into  furring  joint  for  tie. 

Ornamental  Terra=cotta.  All  joints  are  to  be  \  inch  thick;  and 
the  special  anchors  shown  on  the  detail  are  to  be  built  in.  Fill 
all  hollow  portions  with  concrete  formed  by  filling  in  with  cement 
mortar  and  then  crowding  in  broken  bricks  until  the  mortar  is  forced 
into  every  corner. 

Over  all  approximately  horizontal  surfaces,  put  a  £-inch  coat 
of  Portland  cement  mortar,  1  part  cement  to  1  part  sand,  after  cover- 
ing the  surface  with  a  continuous  sheet  of  No.  24  expanded  metal. 
The  terra-cotta  surface  is  to  be  thoroughly  wet,  the  mortar  coat 
pressed  vigorously  through  the  metal,  and  the  surface  finished  smooth. 
This  surface  it  to  be  protected  from  the  sun  for  four  days,  and  wet 
at  such  intervals  as  will  keep  it  at  all  times  moist. 

CARPENTER  WORK 

Materials. — Rough  Lumber.  All  wood  which  is  not  exposed  to 
view  in  rooms  above  basement,  may  be  of  pine,  spruce,  or  hemlock, 
sized  and  seasoned. 

Joists  and  Stringers.  Joists  and  stair  stringers  must  be  sound, 
with  no  loose  knots  or  knots  over  2J  inches  measured  the  longest  way 
within  3  inches  of  the  lower  or  within  1  inch  of  the  upper  edge. 

Studs.     Studs  must  be  sound,  with  no  loose  knots  in  either  edge. 

Miscellaneous  framing  lumber,  bridging,  etc.,  must  be  sound. 

There  will  be  no  wood  floors  in  basement.  Cover  all  joists  and 
rafters  with  tongued  and  grooved  pine  or  spruce  boards  f  inch  thick 
and  not  over  5  inches  wide,  for  lining.  Shakes  and  other  imperfec- 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  35 

tions  will  be  accepted,  which  do  not  leave  holes,  provided  the  imper- 
fection is  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  firmly  hold  a  nail. 

All  finished  floors  of  first  and  second  stories  will  be  of  quartered 
white  oak;  and  all  floors  above  will  be  of  edge-grain  pine,  all  tongued 
and  grooved  and  not  over  1\  inches  face,  thoroughly  kiln-dried,  of  a 
quality  free  from  shakes.  Sound  knots  will  be  allowed;  also  imper- 
fections which  do  not  extend  to  within  \  inch  of  the  wearing  surface. 

All  miscellaneous  lumber  for  grounds,  window-frames,  etc., 
may  be  of  pine  or  spruce,  with  square  edges  and  free  from  loose 
knots. 

There  will  be  no  finish  in  basement,  except  door-frames  and 
doors,  which  will  be  stock  pattern  and  paneled  If  inches  thick. 

The  finishing  lumber  for  all  rooms  on  first  floor  except  kitchen, 
pantries,  and  closets,  will  be  of  quartered  white  oak,  with  bright 
surface,  and  with  no  imperfections  which  appear  on  the  face  or  ex- 
posed edges;  but  sound  knots  of  any  size,  which  are  finished  smooth, 
will  be  allowed.  All  other  finishing  lumber  of  first  and  second  floors 
is  to  be  of  oak,  ash,  or  birch,  of  a  quality  specified  above,  but  may  be 
straight-sawed. 

All  finishing  lumber  above  second  floor  is  to  be  of  pine,  of  a 
quality  containing  no  defects  which  one  coat  of  shellac  and  three 
coats  of  paint  will  not  cover. 

All  shelving  in  closets  and  pantries  throughout  the  building, 
may  be  of  pine  or  poplar,  full  f  inch  thick. 

All  stair  treads,  rails,  balusters,  and  risers  are  to  be  of  quartered 
white  oak,  the  treads  to  be  1^  inches  thick,  all  strings  to  be  of  the 
same  wood  as  the  finish  of  adjoining  floors. 

CARPENTRY  CONSTRUCTION 

All  joists  are  to  be  set  1  foot  4  inches  on  centers  with  a  bearing 
on  all  supporting  walls  of  4  inches.  When  in  brick  walls,  the  ends 
are  to  be  beveled  so  that  the  upper  edge  is  just  on  a  line  with  the  in- 
side face  of  brick  wall. 

All  trimmers  are  to  be  doubled,  and  all  headers  over  10  feet  long 
are  to  be  tripled.  Where  joists  are  framed  together,  no  cutting 
is  to  be  done;  but  wrought-iron  hangers  or  stirrups  with  a  cross- 
section  of  all  vertical  parts  equal  to  1  square  inch  of'metal,  are  to  be 
used. 


241 


36  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Every  third  joist  in  the  brick  wall  is  to  be  anchored  thereto 
by  a  strap  anchor  containing  ^  square  inch  of  metal,  extending  2 
feet  onto  the  lower  edge  of  joist  and  within  4  inches  of  the  outside 
face  of  wall,  with  end  turned  up  2  inches,  to  be  spiked  to  the  joist 
with  five  30d  nails  to  each  anchor.  Where  joists  meet  over  partition 
heads,  they  are  to  be  spiked  thereto  with  four  20d  spikes  at  each 
bearing,  and,  when  practicable,  to  the  joist  of  the  opposite  side.  All 
joists  are  to  be  cross-bridged  every  8  feet  of  clear  span,  with  2  by  2-inch 
stuff,  with  two  12d  nails  in  each  end. 

Studs  are  to  be  1  foot  4  inches  on  centers,  both  studs  and  heads 
doubled  beside  and  over  all  openings;  and  all  openings  over  4  feet 
wide  are  to  be  trussed  above.  Each  stud  is  to  be  secured  with  four 
12d  nails  at  each  end,  and  to  have  one  line  of  2  by  2-inch  single 
bridging  in  the  height  of  each  story,  this  bridging  to  be  so  set  in  the 
center  of  the  stud  that  it  will  be  an  inch  back  from  both  faces. 

The  lining  floors  will  have  two  8d  nails  in  each  board  over  each 
bearing,  one  in  the  tongue  and  one  about  1  inch  from  the  groove  edge. 
All  lining  will  be  so  laid  as  to  be  perfectly  tight,  and  may  be  laid  before 
plastering. 

All  sash  will  be  of  pine,  If  inches  thick.  When  only  single  sash 
are  shown,  they  are  to  be  hinged  with  three  3-inch  wrought-iron  butts 
at  the  top,  with  two  hooks  to  each  sash  to  secure  them  when  either 
closed  or  open.  All  other  sash  are  to  be  double-hung  with  braided 
cotton  cord  and  iron  weights,  the  pockets  of  the  window-frames  to 
be  as  long  as  practicable. 

All  fnished  floors  will  have  one  8d  nail  over  each  joist;  and, 
after  laying,  they  are  to  be  scraped  or  planed  to  an  even  surface. 
These  floors  are  to  be  laid  after  all  other  finish  is  in,  and  are  to  be  cut 
with  great  care  against  the  base. 

All  finish  lumber  is  to  be  put  up  in  such  a  manner  that  the  nails 
or  screws  securing  it  will  be  invisible.  This  is  to  be  done  by  working 
through  the  back  or  in  quirks  or  concealed  places,  but  no  splintering 
to  hide  the  heads  of  nails  will  be  required. 

The  hardwood  doors  will  be  veneered  on  soft  white  pine  cores 
made  of  strips  not  over  f  inch  thick.  Before  the  veneering  is  put  on, 
the  Architect  is  to  be  advised  where  the  cores  may  be  inspected;  and, 
if  the  gluing  or  seasoning  is  defective,  or  hard  knots  are  discovered, 
the  cores  will  be  rejected.  The  panels  are  to  be  left  free  to  shrink. 


242 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  37 

All  doors  below  third  floor  are  to  be  If  inches  thick;  all  on  third 
floor  and  above,  If  inches  thick. 

The  mantels  are  to  be  built  up  complete,  all  parts  glued  together 
and  nailed  or  screwed  in  concealed  places,  and  brought  to  the  building 
ready  to  set  in  place. 

Hardware.  The  owner  will  furnish  mortise  locks  complete, 
3  butts  for  each  door,  2  sash  lifts,  1  sash  lock,  1  socket,  and  4  sash 
pulleys  for  each  window. 

The  contractor  is  to  set  these  and  to  furnish  and  set  any  other 
hardware  evidently  necessary  to  complete  the  work — such  as  wrought- 
iron  brackets  for  shelves,  sliding-door  hangers,  etc. 

Roof.  The  flat  portions  of  the  roof  are  to  be  covered  with  canvas. 
The  steep  portions  will  be  covered  with  tile. 

Canvas.  All  canvas  must  weigh,  when  thoroughly  dry,  10 
ounces  to  the  square  yard,  and  must  not  lose  over  5  per  cent  of  its 
dry  weight  after  being  soaked  in  water  10  hours  and  so  rubbed  as 
to  take  out  all  matter  soluble  in  water.  It  is  to  be  laid  dry,  stretched 
tight,  all  edges  to  be  lapped  1  inch  and  tacked  with  f-inch  tacks  set 
f  inch  apart. 

In  all  places  where  the  roof  meets  a  vertical  surface,  three- 
cornered  strips  l£  inches  by  H  inches  are  to  be  nailed,  and  the  canvas 
is  to  be  carried  up  over  them  and  8  inches  on  the  vertical  wall.  If 
such  wall  is  of  masonry,  there  will  be  a  1|  inch  by  2j  inch  dressed 
strip  bolted  by  expansion  bolts  set  3  feet  apart  under  the  projecting 
ledge  of  brick;  and  canvas  is  to  be  tacked  to  the  under  side  of 'this 
strip  as  at  other  places. 

After  the  entire  roof  is  covered  and  the  canvas  swept  clean,  it 
is  to  be  soaked  with  water,  and,  when  thoroughly  wet,  is  to  be  rubbed 
full  of  stiff  paint  composed  of  white  lead  and  raw  oil  in  proportions 
of  100  pounds  of  lead  to  3£  gallons  of  oil.  After  this  is  dry  and  the 
surface  hard,  and  not  less  than  five  days  after  the  first  application, 
the  roof  and  all  exposed  surfaces  of  wood  strips  in  connection  there- 
with are  to  have  two  coats  of  white  lead  and  oil  paint. 

Tile.  The  steep  portions  of  the  roof  are  to  be  covered  with  red 
tile  burned  from  a  tough  clay;  and  all  nails  or  wire  necessary  to 
secure  them  permanently  to  the  roof  are  to  be  of  copper.  If  wire  is 
used,  the  gauge  is  to  be  not  less  than  No.  12;  if  nails,  the  gauge  is  to 
be  not  less  than  No.  8. 


243 


38  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

All  joints  are  to  be  so  close  that  there  will  be  no  necessity  for 
water  proof  paper  below,  or  for  cement,  except  at  the  hips. 

All  valleys  are  to  be  open,  and  flashed  with  14-ounce  copper, 
which  must  extend  not  less  than  8  inches  under  the  tile  at  each  side. 

NOTE  TO  STUDENT.  No.  2.— See  Note  No.  1,  on  page  33,  relative  to 
examination  of  actual  masonry  work.  At  this  point  the  student  is  to  follow 
the  directions  in  No.  1,  but  applying  them  to  carpentry  work  and  materials, 
and  to  write  a  specification  (not  exceeding  400  words)  of  some  portion  as 
directed  in  Note  No.  1. 

Gutters  and  Conductors.  All  gutters  and  exterior  conductor 
pipes  will  be  of  16-ounce  copper;  and  where  they  join  the  soil  pipe 
system,  they  are  to  be  soldered  to  cast  brass  thimbles,  which  are  to 
be  calked  into  the  iron  piping  with  pig  lead. 

Plastering.  There  will  be  no  plastering  in  basement;  but  all 
the  walls  above  are  to  be  finished  with  3-coat  work.  All  brick  walls 
are  furred  with  terra-cotta,  on  which  the  plaster  is  to  be  placed.  All 
other  surfaces  are  to  be  lathed  with  pine  or  spruce  lath  only  partially 
seasoned;  and  wherever  these  lathed  partitions  and  the  brickwork  of 
chimneys  or  the  terra-cotta  adjoin,  expanded-metal  or  wire-mesh 
lath  are  to  be  placed,  extending  8  inches  onto  each  side;  and,  as  each 
coat  of  plaster  is  placed,  all  corners  are  to  be  cut  through  from  floor 
to  ceiling. 

All  plasterers'  material  is  to  be  freshly  burned  stone  lime,  slaked 
at  least  two  weeks  before  mixing  with  sand;  and  to  contain  hair  of 
the  ordinary  quality  sold  for  plastering  purposes,  and  sand  clean 
and  sharp.  The  mixing  is  to  be  done  just  prior  to  its  use,  and  is'  to 
be  thorough.  The  hair  is  to  be  soaked  so  as  to  separate  it  from 
matting,  and  enough  used,  and  so  mixed  that  it  will  not  be  possible 
to  find  any  small  portions  of  the  mortar  in  which  the  hair  is  not  visible. 

The  first  coat  is  to  be  mixed  very  rich  with  lime,  using  not  more 
than  four  volumes  of  sand  to  one  of  unslaked  lime;  and  is  to  be 
scratched. 

The  second  is  to  be  a  thin  coat,  in  which  six  volumes  of  sand 
may  be  used  to  one  part  of  unslaked  lime;  and  this  is  not  to  be  applied 
before  the  first  coat  is  dry  and  hard. 

The  last  coat  in  all  cases  will  be  white;  hard  finish  of  lime  putty 
gauged  with  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  to  be  applied  in  not  less  than 
five  days  after  the  first  coats  appear  dry  and  hard. 


344 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  39 

The  first  two  coats  are  to  go  to  the  floor  back  of  all  base-boards 
and  wainscot,  and  be  brought  up  to  all  grounds. 

When  completed,  the  work  is  to  be  straight  and  free  from  dis- 
colorations,  hair  cracks,  or  lime  pits. 

NOTE  TO  STUDENT.  No.  3. — See  Note  No.  1  on  page  33,  relative  to 
examination  of  actual  masonry  work.  At  this  point  the  student  is  to  follow 
the  directions  in  No.  1,  but  applying  them  to  plaster  work  and  materials, 
and  to  prepare  a  400-word  specification  of  a  portion  of  the  work  or  materials, 
as  explained. 

Paint.  All  exterior  woodwork  is  to  be  primed  as  soon  as  in 
place,  with  raw  linseed  oil  and  a  very  small  amount  of  yellow  ocher; 
and  later  to  have  two  additional  coats  of  raw  linseed  and  white  lead 
paint  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  100  pounds  of  lead  to  5  gallons  of 
oil,  colored  with  such  pigments  as  will  produce  the  single  color 
desired,  and  having  no  more  drier  in  each  coat  than  is  necessary  to 
insure  its  drying  within  18  hours. 

All  pine  woodwork  throughout  the  house,  including  floors,  will 
have  one  coat  of  white  shellac  and  three  coats  of  paint,  mixed  as 
above  and  of  the  colors  selected  by  the  Architect.  There  will  be 
one  color  only  in  each  room  for  finish,  and  one  for  floors. 

All  hardwood  except  floors  is  to  be  filled  with  a  mineral  filler, 
and  to  have  three  coats  of  varnish,  the  last  two  rubbed  to  a  dull  sur- 
face. The  varnish  is  to  be  of  a  brand  covered  by  an  affidavit  from 
the  manufacturers  that  it  contains  no  rosin  or  petroleum  products 
and  that  it  contains  at  least  17  per  cent  of  copal  gums.  Also,  the 
varnish  must  be  of  such  character  that  a  film  on  glass  will  not  dry  in 
less  than  48  hours;  and  when  dry,  the  film  is  not  to  be  brittle.  Four 
days  must  elapse  between  the  application  of  each  coat  of  varnish 
and  the  succeeding  coat. 

All  hardwood  floors,  treads,  and  risers  are  to  have  one  coat  of 
hot  raw  linseed  oil  and  two  additional  coats  of  cold  raw  linseed  oil, 
three  days  to  intervene  between  each  coat  and  the  next. 

Glass.  All  glass  is  to  be  at  least  ^  inch  thick  and  free  from  all 
smoke,  bubbles,  or  wavy  lines.  It  is  to  be  set  in  the  sash  after 
priming  with  white  lead,  back-puttied,  and  fastened  with  points  not 
over  6  inches  apart  and  full-puttied. 

PLUMBING 

Fixtures.  The  bathtubs  are  to  be  cast  iron,  with  roll  rim  and 
standing  waste,  enameled  on  the  inside  and  over  the  roll,  the  outside 


245 


40  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

finished  with  3  coats  of  white  lead  and  oil  paint  and  one  coat  of  outside 
varnish. 

The  washtrays  and  sinks  are  to  be  of  similar  material  and  finish, 
the  sinks  to  have  overflow  cast  in  side;  and  both  are  to  stand  on 
gal vani zed-iron  legs. 

The  washbowls  are  to  be  oval,  not  less  than  fourteen  by  seven- 
teen inches,  of  one-piece  earthenware,  with  standing  waste  and 
nickel-plated  legs. 

The  waterclosets  are  to  be  of  the  siphon-jet  type,  with  bowl  and 
trap  all  cast  in  one  piece,  with  hardwood  seat  and  cover  bolted  to  the 
bowl,  and  with  copper-lined  oak  tank  of  10  gallons'  capacity. 

The  hot-water  boiler  will  be  of  galvanized  iron  of  60  gallons' 
capacity,  tested  to  150  pounds'  pressure  and  connected  to  the  water- 
front of  range. 

All  enameled  iron  work  is  to  carry  the  guarantee  of  manufacturer 
against  cracking  or  crazing  of  enamel  for  two  years. 

All  earthenware  must  carry  a  similar  guarantee  against  crazing 
for  two  years;  and  the  guarantee  in  each  case  must  provide  that,  in 
case  the  fixtures  do  not  hold  out  for  the  period  in  perfect  condition 
as  regards  the  points  covered,  the  manufacturers  will  pay  all  ex- 
penses incident  to  furnishing  new  ones  in  place,  on  which  they  are  to 
place  a  similar  guarantee. 

All  paint  and  varnish  used  are  to  be  of  qualities  specified  under 
"Painting." 

All  water  piping  is  to  be  of  lead,  of  the  weights  known  to  the 
trade  as  "Extra  Heavy,"  except  in  basement,  where  it  is  to  be  of  gal- 
vanized iron. 

From  the  end  of  the  water  main  now  at  the  front  wall,  extend 
a  lj-inch  pipe  to  where  the  lead  riser  leaves  the  first  floor-level,  this 
riser  to  be  1  inch  and  to  extend  to  the  ceiling  of  the  upper  floor. 

The  branch  to  the  basement  washtrays  is  to  be  f  inch;  and  that 
to  the  water-closet,  f  inch,  from  the  1  j-inch  main. 

Above  the  basement,  branches  to  sinks  and  water-closet  tanks 
are  to  be  2  inch;  to  bathtubs  and  hot-water  boiler  f  inch;  and  to 
washbowls,  f  inch. 

Hot  water  from  the  boiler  at  kitchen  range  is  to  be  carried  to  all 
fixtures  except  water-closets,  in  pipes  similar  in  all  respects  to  those 
above  referred  to. 


246 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  41 

All  lead  pipes  are  to  be  run  on  hardwood  boards  and  through 
floor-boxes,  and  to  have  tacks  not  over  2  feet  6  inches  apart;  and 
where  run  horizontally,  there  are  to  be  two  brass  bands  between  each 
pair  of  tacks,  to  prevent  sagging. 

No  turn  is  to  be  made  on  a  circle  of  less  than  9  inches  diameter; 
and  pipes  are  to  be  carried  so  as  to  provide  a  dead  end  of  not  less  than 
3  feet  above  the  highest  branch,  and  so  graded  that  all  will  drain 
through  a  stop  and  waste-cock  to  be  set  just  inside  the  basement  wall. 

There  are  to  be  as  few  joints  as  possible  in  the  lead  piping; 
but  where  they  occur,  either  in  connection  with  lead  or  brass,  the 
joints  are  to  be  wiped;  and,  if  connections  are  necessary  to  iron 
pipes,  brass  ferrules  either  calked  or  screwed  into  the  iron  pipe  are 
to  be  used. 

Just  inside  the  basement  wall,  and  wherever  a  branch  leaves 
the  main  in  both  hot  and  cold-water  lines,  place  stop  and  waste-cocks 
with  waterway  of  equal  area  to  the  pipe  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  with 
J-inch  wastes  to  waste  pipes  or  sewer.  Those  in  the  cellar  are  to  be 
plain  brass ;  and  those  above,  nickel-plated,  with  lever  handles. 

All  faucets  except  for  bathtubs  are  to  be  self-closing,  of  £-inch 
larger  waterway  than  the  pipe  supplying  them,  those  in  the  wash- 
trays  and  sinks  to  be  plain  brass,  those  for  bowls  to  be  low  down 
nickel-plated. 

The  bathtubs  will  be  equipped  with  combination,  compression 
bibbs  closing  with  the  pressure,  of  the  plainest  and  heaviest  stock 
pattern,  with  nozzle  to  which  a  ^-inch  hose  can  be  attached: 

Traps.  Under  the  set  of  tubs,  each  sink,  and  bathtub,  set  a 
4-inch  lead  pot  trap  8  inches  deep,  with  4-inch  brass  trap-screw  in 
the  top,  set  in  an  accessible  place  as  near  the  fixture  as  possible. 

Under  each  bowl  set  a  nickel-plated  trap  which  cannot  be  siphoned 
under  any  conditions  existing  in  the  building,  and  with  no  movable 
parts,  but  with  trap-screw  which  will  permit  its  being  cleaned. 

Soil  Pipe.  All  soil  pipe  and  fittings  are  to  be  of  cast  iron  of  the 
grade  known  to  the  trade  as  "Extra  Heavy" — that  is,  the  grade  in 
which  a  5-foot  length  of  4-inch  pipe  weighs  not  less  than  65  pounds, 
coated  outside  and  inside  with  asphalt  paint.  The  main  line  extending 
from  the  running  trap  now  in  manhole  to  a  point  just  above  the  high- 
est fixture,  is  to  be  4-inch;  all  branches  to  fixtures  are  to  be  of  the 


247 


42  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

smallest  diameter  allowed  by  the  city  ordinances,  and  are  to  be 
brought  to  points  as  near  the  fixtures  as  possible. 

Above  the  highest  fixture,  a  4-inch  wrought-iron  fitting  is  to  be 
calked  into  the  cast-iron  hub  of  soil  pipe,  and  continue  with  4-inch 
wrought-iron  screw-jointed  pipe  into  the  flue  for  the  kitchen  range, 
and  thence  to  top  of  chimney ;  but  before  the  wrought  pipe  enters 
the  flue,  a  right  angle  is  to  be  formed  in  the  screw-joint  fittings,  so  that, 
in  case  of  unequal  settlement  of  any  part,  the  screw-joint  in  the  angle 
will  take  up  the  movement. 

Back  air  or  "vent"  pipes  are  to  be  installed  only  as  required  to 
comply  with  the  city  ordinances. 

All  soil  and  waste  pipes  are  to  be  calked  with  pig  lead. 

As  the  details  show  the  location  of  pipes  and  fittings  required 
on  the  plumbing  drawings,  they  are  not  described  here. 

After  all  roughing-in  of. soil  and  waste  pipe  is  complete,  all 
outlets  below  the  top  are  to  be  stopped,  and  the  entire  system  is  to 
be  filled  with  water,  which  is  to  stand  in  the  pipe  without  settlement 
for  10  hours. 

All  connections  from  bowls  and  sinks  to  traps  and  waste  pipes 
are  to  be  of  1-inch  "Heavy"  lead;  from  washtrays  and  bathtubs, 
the  wastes  are  to  be  1^  inch  "Heavy"  lead;  and  the  joints  are  to  be 
formed  as  indicated  above  for  water  runs. 

The  water-closets  are  to  be  set  on  and  bolted  to  brass  flanges 
above  the  floor,  from  which  a  4-inch  lead  bend  of  8-pound  weight 
is  to  connect  with  a  brass  ferrule  calked  in  the  soil  pipe. 

The  flush-pipe  connection  from  tank  to  water-closet  is  to  be 
nickel-plated  brass  lj-inch  pipe. 

In  carrying  out  the  entire  plumbing  system,  all  pipes  are  to  be 
run  exposed,  except  when  soil  pipe  is  continued  in  flue.  There  is 
to  be  no  cutting  of  timbers;  and  wherever  pipes  pass  through  parti- 
tions or  floors,  collars  of  the  same  material  as  the  pipe  are  to  be  placed, 
except  that  where  lead  pipes  are  used,  the  collars  are  to  be  of  nickel- 
plated  brass. 

The  requirements  of  the  city  ordinances  are  to  be  observed; 
while  where  this  specification  requires  work  or  material  in  addition  to 
that  allowed  by  the  ordinance,  this  requirement  is  not  to  be  construed 
as  relieving  the  Contractor  from  furnishing  all  that  is  herein  specified; 
and  when  the  work  is  completed,  it  must  be  in  such  condition  that 


248 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  43 

every  fixture  and  pipe  shall  perform  the  functions  pertaining  thereto 
in  a  perfect  manner.  And,  further,  it  shall  be  an  obligation  on  the 
part  of  the  Contractor  to  make  the  smoke  and  peppermint  test  of 
the  entire  system,  when  required,  not  less  than  3  months  after  the 
occupancy  of  the  premises;  and  previous  to  such  tests,  there  is  to  be 
no  tightening  of  unions  or  other  screw-joints.  Any  joints  which 
then -are  not  found  to  be  perfectly  tight,  are  to  be  opened,  and  such 
washers  or  other  appliances  placed  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  Architect 
will  make  a  permanent  seal. 

NOTE  TO  STUDENT.  No.  4. — See  Note  No.  1  on  page  33,  relative  to 
examination  of  actual  masonry  work.  At  this  point  the  student  is  to  follow 
the  directions  in  No.  1,  but  applying  them  to  plumbing  work  and  materials, 
and  to  prepare  a  400-word  specification  of  a  portion  of  the  work  and  materials, 
as  explained 

Gas  Piping.  Inasmuch  as  the  Gas  Company  lays  down  full 
and  complete  rules  governing  the  sizes  of  pipes  and  methods  of 
running  them,  which  must  be  followed,  this  portion  of  the  work  is 
not  set  forth  here  further  than  to  require  that  such  rules  shall  be 
followed.  But  in  carrying  out  the  work  no  joist  is  to  be  cut  more  than 
1  inch  deep,  and  never  more  than  8  inches  from  its  bearing. 

No  vertical  stud  is  to  be  cut  more  than  l\  inches  deep,  and  no 
vertical  supporting  timber  or  pier  under  any  circumstances. 

When  complete,  the  system  is  to  be  tested,  in  addition  to  the  Gas 
Company's  test,  with  15  pounds'  air-pressure,  which  must  be  helc* 
for  half  an  hour. 

HEATING 

The  Owner  will  furnish,  deliver,  and  set  up  in  the  cellar,  but 
without  any  smoke-  or  steam-pipe  connections,  a  cast-iron,  sectional, 
low-pressure  steam  boiler;  and  the  Contractor  is  to  furnish  and 
place  all  other  necessary  material  and  labor  to  install  the  system 
completely.  All  radiators  are  to  be  of  cast  iron.  The  piping  is  to 
be  so  installed  that  all  steam  and  condensed  water  in  the  same  pipe 
shall  travel  in  the  same  direction,  except  that  one  short  connection 
to  radiators  may  let  in  steam  and  take  out  water,  so  that  only  one 
valve  will  be  required. 

All  radiator  valves  are  to  have  unions,  so  that  the  radiator  can 
be  completely  disconnected  thereby,  and  are  to  be  nickel-plated, 
with  wood  handles. 


249 


44  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

The  air-valves  to  radiators  will  be  the  ordinary  type  of  hand 
valves. 

All  valves  other  than  radiator  valves  in  pipes  will  be  gate  valves 
allowing  a  full  opening. 

The  sizes  and  positions  of  all  radiators  and  pioes  are  shown 
on  drawings  Nos.  30,  31,  32,  and  33. 

The  smoke  pipe  from  the  boiler  is  to  be  of  No.  22  gauge  %black 
iron,  with  riveted  joints. 

After  the  system  of  steam  pipes  and  radiators  is  complete,  it  is 
to  be  tested  with  air-pressure  to  50  pounds;  and  the  pressure  is  to 
stand  one  hour  without  showing  any  drop  at  the  gauge. 

All  radiators  are  to  be  bronze-painted;  and  all  pipes  above 
basement  are  to  be  painted  maroon,  and  all  in  basement  black. 

A  brick  wall  is  to  be  placed  around  the  boiler,  extending  to  the 
floor-lining  between  the  joists,  leaving  a  space  of  at  least  2  feet  between 
boiler  and  wall  at  all  points  except  in  front.  Overhead,  nail  to  the 
joists  No.  24  galvanized-iron  sheets,  above  which,  between  the 
joists,  put  2  inches  of  mineral  wool. 

From  the  chamber  thus  formed,  take  IX  tin  pipes  (that  is,  pipe  of 
tin  on  iron  or  steel  plates  which  weigh  approximately  9  ounces  to  a 
square  foot  before  coating  with  tin)  to  the  registers  indicated  on  the 
First-floor  drawing.  Each  pipe  is  to  have  a  damper  completely 
closing  the  entire  area.  The  registers  are  to  have  tight-fitting  valves 
and  cast-iron  borders. 

Place  the  cold-air  box  of  No.  24  galvanized  iron,  with  hinged 
valve  closing  the  entire  area,  arid  with  chain  and  weight  competent 
to  hold  it  in  any  desired  position. 

NOTE  TO  STUDENT.  No.  5. — See  Note  No,  1  on  page  33,  relative  to 
examination  of  actual  masonry  work.  At  this  point  the  student  is  to  follow 
the  directions  in  No.  1,  but  applying  them  to  heating  apparatus,  etc.,  and  to 
prepare  a  400-word  specification  of  a  part  of  the  apparatus. 

Cleaning  up.  After  the  practical  completion  of  the  work,  all 
surplus  material  and  debris  is  to  be  removed  from  the  premises;  the 
building  swept  clean;  windows  washed;  and  the  finish  wiped  off,  so 
as  to  allow  a  final  inspection  of  all  visible  points.  Any  items  which 
are  then  passed  as  satisfactory  shall  be  considered  as  fully  complying 
with  the  contract  requirements  unless  there  later  appear  hidden 
defects  which  at  that  time  could  not  be  seea. 


250 


LIVING  ROOM  IN  HOUSE  OF  MR.  MAX   FERNEKES,  AT   BROOKDALE,  WIS. 

Pernekes  &  Cramer,  Architects,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

View  Looking  toward  Fireplace  and  Sideboard  in  Dining  Room.  The  Wood  Finish  through- 
put First  Floor  is  Cypress,  except  Ceiling  in  Living  Room,  which  is  an  Oak-Beam  Ceiling  Show- 
ing Oak  Joists  Used  for  Construction.  The  Doors  are  Not  Paneled,  but  Have  a  Smooth  Surface 
on  One  Side  and  Strips  on  Back:  Front  is  Covered  with  Two  Strap  Hrass-Plated  Hinges  Running 
over  Entire  Door.  Thumb-Latches  are  Used  Throughout. 


LIVING  ROOM  IN  HOUSE  OF  MR.  MAX   FERNEKES,  AT  BROOKDALE,  WIS. 

Fernekes  &  Cramer,  Architects,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Casement  Sash  are  Used  Throughout,  with  Leaded  Glass. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  45 

PROPOSAL  SHEET 
the  undersigned  hereby  proposes  to  construct  a 


dwelling  for • 

in  strict  accordance  with  drawings  numbered 

and  the  foregoing  specifications  for  the  sum  of 


If  light  colored  sand  stone  or  lime  stone  is  substituted  for 
all  face  brick  and  ornamental  terra-cotta  following 
the  same  outlines,  add  -  -  '  -  -  -  $ . 

If  two  months  more  time  is  allowed  for  the  construction 

deduct        -        -        -        -        -        -    •    -         -     $. 

If  in  the  upper  stories  plain  oak  is  substituted  for  pointed 

pins  add        -                                                    '.  -          $. 
Signed 


THE  FORMAL  CONTRACT 

After  the  completion  of  the  drawings  and  specifications,  it  is 
customary  to  award  a  contract — i.e.,  to  enter  into  an  agreement  for 
carrying  out  the  work;  and  an  instrument  is  drawn  for  the  signature 
of  both  the  Owner  and  the  Contractor,  setting  forth  their  legal  rela- 
tions. Inasmuch  as  a  contract  between  two  parties  is  an  agree- 
ment to  do  a  certain  specific  thing,  it  is  evident  that  the  principal 
part  of  the  contract,  or  the  basis  therefor,  consists  of  the  drawings 
and  specification,  in  which  is  the  full  and  complete  description  of  the 
specific  thing  to  be  done.  Hence,  in  the  preceding  text,  the  point 
that  every  requirement  and  condition  should  be  clearly  set  forth, 
has  been  emphasized;  for,  however  strongly  the  formal  contract 
is  drawn,  if  it  has  no  specific  basis,  it  is  of  no  value.  Therefore, 
from  a  legal  standpoint,  emphasis  is  again  placed  on  the  necessity 
for  a  clear  and  unambiguous  statement  in  the  specification,  of  just 
what  is  to  be  done. 

The  formal  contract  is  not  drawn  till  after  the  award  of  the 
work;  but  separation  in  time  does  not  change  the  fact  that  it  is  only 
a  continuation  of  the  specification;  it  is  its  completion,  and  it  should 
in  short,  clear  terms  set  forth  the  final  arrangement. 

As  the  province  of  the  specification  is  to  set  forth  and  explain 
what  is  not  included  in  the  province  of  the  drawings,  the  formal  con- 
tract is  to  set  forth  such  final  conditions  as  the  specification  was 
not  able  to  cover. 

There  are  certain  conditions  likely  to  prevail  in  carrying  out  the 


251 


46  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

work,  which  may  in  a  very  material  way  affect  the  operation  of  the 
contract,  and  possibly  destroy  its  force  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  its  basis  is  sound.  As  the  contract  is  an  agreement  to  do  a  cer- 
tain specific  thing,  it  follows  that,  if  any  change  is  made  in  any  of  the 
matter  which  goes  to  make  up  that  specific  thing  so  that  some  other 
specific  thing  is  substituted,  the  terms  of  the  contract  are  not  filled, 
and  such  changes,  unless  properly  guarded,  can  be  made  the  basis 
of  refusal  on  the  part  of  either  the  Owner  or  the  Builder  to  abide  by 
all  the  conditions  covered  by  the  contract.  Questions  of  this  de- 
scription are  among  the  most  serious  which  arise  in  general  archi- 
tectural practice. 

As  buildings  progress,  the  Owner  and  often  the  Architect  see 
items  which,  if  changed,  would  improve  the  result;  and  as  the  depar- 
ture from  the  specific  thing  contracted  for  appears  slight,  the  Builder 
is  in  a  general  way  either  requested  or  directed  to  make  the  change. 
Also,  in  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  Builder  often  finds  it  possible 
for  him  to  make  better  arrangements  for  materials,  etc.,  by  making 
substitution,  and,  considering  the  change  of  little  moment,  proceeds 
to  make  it. 

In  the  first  of  the  above  cases,  the  Owner  or  the  Architect  is 
surprised  when  he  finds  that  modifications  made  by  either  are  the 
basis  for  an  extra  charge  of  some  magnitude,  and  that  it  is  also 
used  as  an  excuse  (and  it  is  generally  valid)  for  several  days'  delay 
in  the  completion  of  the  work. 

In  the  second  case,  the  Builder  is  surprised  to  find  his  substi- 
tution the  basis  of  a  demand  that  he  make  a  material  deduction 
from  the  contract  price. 

In  either  case,  the  Architect  is  blamed  by  both  parties — and 
often  justly  so — for  allowing  matters  to  drift  into  the  existing  con- 
ditions; and  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  Owner  and  Builder  to  get 
together  and  settle  their  differences,  without  changing  their  opinion 
of  the  Architect. 

Therefore,  after  the  signing  of  the  contract,  it  should  be  the 
special  province  of  the  Architect  to  see  that  as  few  changes  as  pos- 
sible-are made;  and,  when  it  is  advisable  to  make  changes,  to  see 
also  that  all  the  conditions  affected  thereby  are  fully  understood,  and 
that  such  understanding  is  expressed  in  writing  signed  by  both 
parties. 


252 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  47 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  above  to  intimate  that  desirable 
changes  should  be  abandoned  in  order  to  avoid  complicating  the 
contract  situation,  because  there  is  no  work  in  which  improvements 
cannot  be  made  as  it  progresses;  but  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  sug- 
gestion that  such  changes  should  be  as  few  as  possible,  and  should 
never  be  allowed  at  all  unless  there  is  a  distinct  advantage  gained  to 
the  Owner,  and  that,  in  consenting  to  any  changes,  the  case  should 
be  put  in  such  formal  shape  that  there  can  be  no  later  misunder- 
standing. 

As  the  question  of  time  is  generally  important  to  the  Owner, 
the  Architect  should  see  that  all  details  are  furnished  within  the 
specified  time,  as  it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  the  Builder  to  com- 
plete the  work  on  time  if  he  is  delayed  in  the  receipt  of  his  drawings. 
Such  delay  is  generally  a  sufficient  excuse  for  extension  of  the  con- 
tract time  for  completing  the  work.  Special  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  modification  on  the  details  be  not  of  such  a  character  as  can 
be  used  as  a  basis  for  demands  for  extra  compensation  beyond  con- 
tract prices 

Under  ordinary  conditions  such  as  prevail  in  private  practice 
in  work  of  not  large  magnitude,  a  simple  document  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  set  forth  the  final  relations  of  Owner  and  Builder,  in 
form  somewhat  as  follows: 

FORM  OF  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  OWNER  AND  BUILDER. 

AN  AGREEMENT  entered  into  this  15th  day  of  September,  1907, 

by  and  between. . ,  of  Chicago,  Owner,  party  of  the  first 

part,  and .• ,  also  of  Chicago,  Builder,  party  of  the  second 

part: 

WITNESSETH:  That  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  and  in 
consideration  of  the  sum  of  Five  Thousand  (5,000)  Dollars,  in  payments  as 
set  forth  in  the  specification,  agrees  to  construct  a  city  dwelling  for  the  said 

party  of  the  first  part,  at  the  corner  of Ave.  and St., 

City  of  Chicago,  in  accordance  with  drawings  numbered and 

specifications  all  prepared  therefor  by Architect. 

Which  drawings  and  specifications  are  a  part  of  and  the  basis  of  this 
agreement. 

In  CONSIDERATION  of  the  foregoing,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part 
agrees  to  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  the  full  sum  of  Five  Thousand 
(5,000)  Dollars,  in  payments  and  under  conditions  as  fully  set  forth  in  the 
specification. 

In  witness  of  the  foregoing,  the  parties  aforesaid  here  set  their  hands 


253 


48  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


and  seals  to  this  and  one  other  instrument  of  like  tenor  and  date,  this 

day  of ,  1907. 

,  Owner       (Seal). 

,  Builder  (Seal). 

In  presence  of: 


Should  changes  be  necessary,  a  supplementary  agreement  in  the 
following  form  should  be  prepared  for  the  signature  of  both  parties: 

WHEREAS: ,  Owner,  did,  on  the  Fifteenth  day 

of  September,  1907,  enter  into  an  agreement  with , 

Builder,  for  the  erection  of  a  dwelling  in  accordance  with  drawings  and  speci- 
fication prepared  therefor  by ,  Architect,  as  fully  set 

forth  in  such .  agreement ;  and 

WHEREAS:  it  is  the  desire  of  said ,  Owner,  to 

make  certain  changes  as  fully  set  forth  as  follows: 


The  said ,  Builder,  agrees  to  make  such  changes   and 

make  all  necessary  modifications  in  the  work  necessarily  incident  thereto,  for 
the  sum  of  One  Hundred  (100)  Dollars,  as  an  addition  to  the  original  contract 
price  for  the  work,  it  being  understood  that  no  additional  time  is  to  be  required 
in  the  completion  of  the  work  on  account  of  these  changes. 

And  the  said ,  Owner,  agrees   to  pay  the  addi- 
tional sum  of  One  Hundred  (100)  Dollars  on  account  of  these  changes. 

In  witness  of  the  foregoing,  the  parties  above  said  have  set  their  hands 

and  seals  to  this  and  one  other  instrument  of  like  tenor  and  date  this 

day  of ,  1907. 

,  Owner.       (Seal). 

' ,  Builder.     (Seal). 

In  presence  of : 


The  above  agreement  has  been  duly  noted  by  me, 

,  Architect. 

As  the  work  progresses,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  Architect 
each  month  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  labor  and  materials 
satisfactorily  in  place,  and  to  issue  to  the  Contractor  a  certificate 
for  presentation  to  the  Owner.  A  certificate  drawn  along  the  fol- 
lowing lines  not  only  serves  its  purpose  of  notifying  the  Owner  of 
the  amount  due,  but  also  furnishes  him  with  a  statement  of  the 
account  to  date.  It  is  very  desirable  that  both  Owner  and  Con- 
tractor shall  each  month  see,  understand,  and  sign  a  clear  statement 
of  the  conditions  existing  under  the  contract;  for  this  closes  up  all 
matters  which  if  allowed  to  drift,  might  cause  serious  misunder- 
standing. 


254 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


Certificate  No.  2. 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS. 

November  1,  1907. 

THIS  certifies  that ,  Contractor,  under  his  agree- 
ment, dated  September  15,  1907,  with ,  to  construct  a 

dwelling  at  the  corner  of Ave.  and St.,  City  of  Chicago, 

is  entitled  to  a  payment  in  amount  Twelve  Hundred  Dollars  ($1,200.00) 
under  the  terms  of  said  agreement  in  accordance  with  the  following  statement 
of  the  account: 

Contract  price $5,000.00 

Extra  No.  1,  dated  October  3 100 .00 

Extra  No.  2,  dated  October  18 125.00 

Total  of  contract  and  extras  to  date $  5,225 . 00 

Value  of  work  and  materials  satisfactorily 

in  place  at  this  date $2,400.00 

Retained  percentage  10% $     240 . 00 

Certificate  No.  1,  Oct.  1,  1907. 960.00 

Certificate  No.  2,  Nov.  1,  1907. 1,200.00 


Total  value  of  work  in  place  on  this  date $  2,400.00 

Total  balance  unpaid  under  this  contract $  2,825.00 

To ,  Owner. ,  Architect. 

November  3,  1907. 

RECEIVED  from .  . ,   Owner,   the    sum    of    Twelve 

Hundred  Dollars  ($1,200.00),  and  I  acknowledge  that  the  above  statement 
of  the  account  is  complete  and  correct. 

. . ,  Contractor. 

RECEIPT  FOR   INSURANCE   POLICIES. 
(To  be  detached  and  delivered  to  Contractor  after  signing.) 

RECEIVED  of ,  Contractor,  fire  insurance  policies 

as  follows: ,   in   total  amount   $2,600.00, 

issued  as  required  by  agreement  dated  September  15,  1907,  for  the  erection 

of  a  dwelling  for  me  at  the   corner  of Ave.  and St. 

,  Owner. 

In  all  the  foregoing  relative  to  formal  contracts,  consideration 
has  been  given  only  to  such  cases  as  would  come  up  in  an  ordinary 
private  practice,  where  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  relations  of 
parties  with  one  another  are  such  that  all  that  is  necessary  to  insure 
a  satisfactory  completion  of  all  agreements  is  a  definite  understanding 
of  exactly  what  is  to  be  furnished  and  done  by  each  of  the  contract- 
ing parties.  No  contracts  can  be  drawn,  or  specifications  written, 
which  prevent  either  party  from  bringing  suit  against  anybody  if 
they  so  desire. 


255 


50  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

The  question  is  entirely  different  in  the  case  of  formal  contracts 
for  public  or  corporation  work  requiring  bonds,  where,  on  account 
of  the  impersonal  nature  of  the  Owner,  it  is  impossible  to  adapt 
procedure  to  the  varying  conditions  that  arise.  It  is  entirely  outside 
the  'province  of  the  Architect  to  attempt  to  arrange  details  of  a  legal 
nature  in  such  cases.  The  liability  .of  a  bondsman  is  very  peculiar, 
and  he  can  be  relieved  therefrom  because  of  even  very  small  depar- 
tures from  the  agreement.  Thus  changes  in  the  work  or  material, 
changes  in  the  dates  or  manner  of  payment,  changes  in  time  of  com- 
pletion, etc.,  can  be  set  up  (and  generally  with  su'ccess)  as  reasons 
why  obligations  under  the  bond  should  be  set  aside. 

As  a  general  thing,  bonds  are  now  furnished  by  large  corporations 
who  employ  the  best  of  legal  talent  to  dispute,  on  any  ground,  their 
liability  should  they  be  called  on;  and  it  is  unreasonable  for  an  Archi- 
tect to  attempt  to  protect  his  patron's  interest  under  such  circum- 
stances. Therefore,  in  cases  of  this  nature,  the  Attorney  representing 
the  public  body  or  the  corporation  for  which  the  work  is  to  be  done, 
should  draw  the  formal  contract  and  bond,  and  supervise  their 
execution.  Any  action  during  the  progress  of  the  work  which  could 
in  any  way  affect  the  specific  obligations  of  either  party,  should  be 
passed  on  by  such  Attorney;  and,  in  case  of  any  change,  he  will 
obtain  a  formal  consent  of  the  sureties  on  the  bond,  before  its  final 
ratification. 

GOVERNMENT  CONTRACTS 

It  is  not  generally  known  to  what  an  extent  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment of  the  United  States  is  a  builder,  or  to  what  extent  its  demands 
for  material  and  labor  influence  the  market ;  nor  do  many  contractors 
or  material  men  know  much  about  the  nature  of  the  contracts  to  be* 
awarded,  and  there  is  a  kind  of  superstition  that  such  contracts  are  so 
bound  up  in  "red  tape"  that  it  is  wise  for  contractors  and  men  with 
good  material  to  keep  out  of  this  market.  It  is  the  object  of  this  paper 
to  show  the  amount  of  work  which  is  under  the  control  of  the  Treas- 
ury Department;  to  indicate  its  general  nature  and  the  conditions 
under  which  contracts  are  let  and  the  work  executed,  and  which 
govern  the  furnishing  of  materials;  and  to  explain  the  nature  of  the 
formal  contract  and  in  what  respects  it  differs  from  those  usually 
required  between  individuals. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  51 

Government  work  is  not  all  red  tape.  In  fact,  when  the  reasons 
for  certain  fixed  lines  of  action  are  understood,  the  red  tape  appears 
in  the  light  of  necessary  business  machinery,  which,  if  more  frequently 
applied  with  discretion  to  private  enterprises,  would  assist  in  pro- 
ducing results  far  in  advance  of  the  average  now  obtained. 

Number  and  Value  of  Buildings  Now  under  Way  and  Contem- 
plated in  the  Near  Future.  There  are  now  (January,  1907)  under 
contract,  wholly  or  in  part,  or  for  which  contracts  will  probably  be 
awarded  within  two  years,  approximately  250  buildings,  the  cost 
limit  of  which,  including  sites,  has  been  fixed  by  Congress  at  approxi- 
mately $40,000,000.  Placing  the  cost  of  sites  at  about  20  per  cent  of 
the  limit  of  cost,  it  will  appear  that  there  is  to  be  spent  in  material  and 
labor  over  $30,000,000.  At  the  rate  at  which  work  is  generally 
carried  on,  the  disbursements  involved  through  the  different  channels 
will  be  from  $600,000  to  $1,000,000  a  month.  While  there  are  many 
corporations  in  the  world  disbursing  an  equal  sum  for  materials  and 
labor  required  in  industrial  enterprises,  there  is  probably  none  where 
such  large  sums  are  disbursed  through  general  channels  open  to  so 
many  branches  of  industry. 

Character  of  Buildings.  The  buildings  under  the  control  of  the 
Treasury  Department  are  for  the  use  of  the  civil  branches  of  the 
Government,  such  as  Postoffices,  Courts,  Customs,  Internal  Revenue, 
Marine  Hospitals,  and  Quarantine  Stations.  Such  buildings  as  the 
Capitol,  the  Library  of  Congress,  and  the  Executive  buildings  of  the 
different  Departments  at  Washington,  are  not  under  the  control  of 
the  Treasury  Department  nor  built  by  it;  neither  are  forts  or  other 
Army  or  Navy  buildings,  or  United  States  Jails. 

Many  of  the  buildings  under  the  Treasury  Department  are  very 
large  and  expensive,  the  New  York  Custom  House  and  the  Chicago 
and  San  Francisco  Postoffices  being  buildings  of  this  type.  The 
larger  number,  however,  are  of  moderate  size,  ranging  from  40  feet 
by  80  feet  outside  dimensions,  and  one  story  high,  to  buildings  of  three 
times  that  area  and  three  stories  high,  and  costing  complete,  with 
heating  apparatus,  etc.,  from  $35,000  to  $175,000  each. 

The  large  majority  are  of  fireproof  construction  and  classic 
design,  with  interior  finish  of  hardwood  and  marble  where  the  funds 
will  permit.  The  best  of  materials  and  appliances  are  used  through- 
out, as  it  is  inadvisable  and  almost  impracticable  in  public  buildings 


357 


52  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

of  this  character,  to  exercise  the  many  economies  which  prevail   in 
private  building. 

The  interiors  are  fitted  with  the  oest  of  modern  appliances  and 
conveniences;  plumbing  is  extensive  and  perfect;  the  toilet  rooms 
for  Postoffice  carriers  are  supplied  not  only  with  the  usual  appliances, 
but  often  with  shower-baths;  and  no  woodwork  either  in  floors  or  in 
finish  is  allowed.  Through  the  building,  small  private  toilet  rooms 
are  provided  for  the  more  prominent  officials ;  and  in  many,  especially 
in  the  South,  bathtubs  are  supplied.  The  heating,  ventilating,  and 
electric  work  are,  in  their  lines,  equally  complete. 

The  buildings  in  the  larger  cities  where  the  Railway  Mail  Service 
men  change,  have  dormitories  for  the  accommodation  of  from  ten  to 
seventy-five  men.  In  the  Postoffice  proper  are  galleries  with  openings 
commanding  every  corner  accessible  to  the  men,  from  which  Inspec- 
tors can  watch  for  days,  without  arousing  suspicion,  any  person  sus- 
pected of  pillaging  the  mails. 

There  is  always  a  large  "swing  room"  for  carriers  when  off  duty, 
where  they  provide  themselves  with  games,  boxing  gloves,  and  occa- 
sionally a  billiard  table  for  recreation. 

In  the  larger  Postoffice  buildings  are  the  most  perfect  of  mechani- 
cal equipments,  engines,  boilers,  electric  generators,  elevators,  mail- 
carrying  and  handling  devices,  sweeping  machinery,  etc. 

From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  there  are  few  lines  in  the  build- 
ing industries  which  should  not  be  interested  in  the  erection  and 
furnishing  of  these  many  buildings. 

Building  Conditions.  It  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  a  very  large 
body  of  contractors,  sub-contractors,  artisans  of  all  callings,  and 
material  men  and  manufacturers,  how  the  Department  builds,  and 
in  what  ways  it  differs  from  the  average  investor  in  its  building  opera- 
tions and  contracts. 

There  is  a  prevalent  idea  that  mystery  surrounds  the  getting 
the  whole  or  any  part  of  a  government  contract — that  one  must  be  on 
the  inside  and  know  how  to  pull  the  wires.  This  feeling  arises  prob- 
ably from  the  facts  that  the  Government  as  an  Employer  and  Owner 
is  a  very  different  affair  to  deal  with  from  a  personal  Owner;  and, 
because  of  such  difference,  and  because  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
varied  branches  of  work,  rendering  it  necessary  to  have  some  fixed 
and  unyielding  rules  and  regulations  to  which  all  doing  business  with 


258 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  53 

the  Government  must  comply,  the  great  mass  of  people  who  should 
be  interested  are  apt  to  think  that  this  is  all  "red  tape"  and  that  they 
cannot  get  near  any  of  this  work. 

When  the  Owner  and  the  Contractor  in  ordinary  practice  make 
an  agreement,  it  is  always  modified  by  the  personal  conditions  and 
qualities  of  each,  so  that  the  conditions  and  terms  frequently  differ 
materially  in  instances  of  work  of  the  same  character.  With  the  De- 
partment, however,  this  cannot  be.  The  Department  has  fixed  policies 
and  rules,  and  is  hedged  about  by  law  in  such  a  way  that  it  must  be 
unyielding  at  all  points;  it  cannot  adapt  the  work  to  the  conditions 
of  the  Contractor;  it  can  take  no  chances;  and  anyone  seeking  to  do 
business  with  the  Department  must  lay  aside  all  personal  ideas  of 
methods,  and  must  seek  from  the  first  to  get  into  the  line  of  the  Depart- 
ment's methods  and  requirements,  even  if  these  appear  to  be  without 
reason.  The  Contractor  who  imagines  that  he  can  take  a  contract,  and 
can  afterwards  have  its  lines  modified  to  suit  his  own  methods,  which 
he  may  honestly  believe  to  be  better  than  the  requirements  of  the 
Department,  is  not  only  bound  to  be  disappointed,  but  is  certain  to 
lose  a  round  sum  before  final  settlement. 

When  bids  are  asked  for  the  construction  of  a  building,  the 
drawings  and  specifications  are  so  prepared  that  the  bidder  is  given 
notice  relative  to  every  requirement;  nothing  is  taken  for  granted; 
it  is  fully  set  forth  to  what  extent  he  is  to  be  responsible  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work,  and  he  is  shown  all  details  leading  up  to  such 
completion.  How  and  when  each  payment  shall  be  made,  is  fully 
explained.  Many  of  these  requirements  are  unusual;  he  may  not, 
and  probably  does  not,  understand  why  they  are  inserted;  but  that 
is  really  none  of  his  business ;  the  requirement  is  plainly  stated ;  and 
if  he  wants  to  put  in  a  bid,  he  has  but  to  figure  just  what  the  cost  of 
the  apparently  useless  requirements  will  be,  and  to  add  such  amount 
to  his  bid. 

The  conditions  which  govern  Treasury  contracts  are  the  result  of 
the  experience  of  many  years;  and  if  a  greater  proportion  of  private 
Owners  and  Contractors  for  private  work  would  adopt  similarly 
exact  methods  in  their  operations,  they  would  be  attended  with  much 
fewer  annoyances  and  much  less  friction.  The  Department  is  just 
as  rigid  in  not  permitting  a  Contractor  to  furnish  something  for 
nothing,  as  it  is  in  not  permitting  him  to  substitute  a  poorer  article 


259 


54  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

than  that  required  by  the  contract.  Should  the  Contractor  under 
any  circumstances  make  a  substitution,  he  is  never  safe.  The  Super- 
intendent on  the  work  may  pass  it;  but  the  Contractor  never  knows 
when  some  traveling  Inspector  or  other  official  may  be  put  on  the 
work  and  detect  the  change.  In  that  case,  the  Superintendent,  as 
well  as  the  Contractor,  receives  severe  censure,  and  the  Contractor 
has  either  to  rectify  the  trouble  or  to  consent  to  a  deduction  of  a  good 
round  sum,  which  usually  represents  several  times  the  difference  in 
value  between  the  material  furnished  and  that  required. 

It  is  fully  set  forth  in  the  specification,  that,  in  case  of  dispute 
regarding  what  is  required  or  regarding  the  value  of  extra  work, 
either  as  an  addition  or  as  a  deduction,  the  decision  of  the  Supervising 
Architect  is  to  be  final;  and  this  means  more  than  such  clauses  in 
private  specifications,  for  the  Department  cannot  be  sued,  and,  in 
case  the  Contractor  objects  to  the  ruling  and  stops  work,  the  Depart- 
ment has  the  power  to  abrogate  the  contract  and  finish  the  work  at 
the  expense  of  the  sureties  on  the  Contractor's  bond.  Later  the 
Contractor  can  bring  a  suit  in  the  Court  of  Claims;  but  it  is  very 
rarely  that  any  substantial  change  is  made  in  the  original  rulings. 
This  rather  autocratic  power  appears  one-sided,  and  at  first  thought 
unfair;  and,  because  of  such  appearance,  it  is  never  exercised  except 
under  extreme  conditions,  after  every  effort  at  reasonable  settlement 
has  failed;  and  then  the  decisions  are  such  that,  as  above  stated,  the 
Court  of  Claims  rarely  reverses  them  to  any  extent. 

This  power  is  necessary  for  the  Government;  otherwise  the 
Department  would  be  at  all  times  subject  to  inroads  and  impositions 
which  would  make  progress  impossible. 

The  sub-contractor  and  material  man  has  no  right  of  lien;  but 
he  has  a  right,  after  a  certain  lapse  of  time,  to  bring  suit  against 
the  Contractor;  moreover,  the  bond  required  by  the  Government, 
equal  to  one-half  of  the  contract  price,  is  also  for  his  benefit,  so  that 
he  has  the  same  protection  under  the  bond  as  has  the  Department. 
Upon  application,  certified  copies  of  all  contracts  and  bonds  are  fur- 
nished for  his  use  by  the  Department,  free.  But  the  Department  is 
under  no  obligation,  nor  has  it  any  right,  to  withhold  payments  from 
the  Contractor  at  the  request  or  demand  of  unpaid  creditors. 

The  relations  of  sub-contractors  and  material  men  to  the  Depart- 
ment are  peculiar  in  that  they  cannot  in  any  way  be  recognized  in  a 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  55 

business  connection;  they  have  no  more  connection  with  the  Depart- 
ment than  a  factory  which  makes  the  shoe  sold  by  a  dealer  has  with 
the  customer.  The  Contractor  is  the  only  business  man  known  or 
recognized;  all  business  of  whatever  nature  must  come  under  his 
signature.  A  sub-contractor  can  get  no  information  or  directions  from 
the  Department's  representative.  If  it  were  otherwise,  the  Con- 
tractor would  have  just  cause  for  complaints  relative  to  interference 
with  his  business  by  the  Government. 

Many  years  ago  a  Departmental  order  forbade  the  requirement 
of  any  particular  item  so  as  to  limit  competition,  or  the  mention  of 
any  particular  material  or  appliance,  "or  its  equal;"  as  a  conse- 
quence, in  the  specification,  there  must  be  inserted  such  descriptions 
as  will  require  appliances  or  materials  which  can  be  had  through 
competition  and  which  will  accomplish  the  ends  required.  The 
Contractor  is  at  liberty  to  obtain  his  samples  for  approval  in  any 
market  he  desires;  but  when  such  samples  are  approved,  it  is  a  very 
difficult  matter  to  get  a  change  made;  were  it  otherwise,  the  Depart- 
ment would  be  constantly  annoyed  and  delayed  in  its  work  by  Con- 
tractors changing  their  minds  relative  to  the  parties  with  whom  they 
wish  to  deal. 

It  is  often  urged  by  persons  controlling  some  new  and  special 
appliance,  that  it  is  not  good  business  for  the  Department  to  refuse 
to  specify  an  article  having  all  the  good  points  which  they  can  show 
to  belong  to  the  particular  article  controlled  by  them.  If  this  idea 
governed,  the  office  of  the  Supervising  Architect  would  be  over- 
whelmed by  enthusiastic  men  with  material  and  appliances  of  very 
doubtful  value;  and  generally  their  claims  would  be  urged  by  them  and 
their  representatives  with  a  strenuousness  in  direct  proportion  to 
their  worthlessness. 

Experience  has  also  shown  that  where  competition  relative  to 
items  entering  into  work  has  not  existed,  the  persons  controlling  them 
rarely  resist  the  temptation  to  charge  abnormal  prices.  This  results 
in  the  Contractor  seeking  relief  at  the  Department  and  asking  to  be 
permitted  to  make  a  substitution;  if  this  is  granted,  the  higher  bidders 
at  once  set  up  the  claim  that  their  figures  were  based  on  the  specified 
requirements,  and  if  they  had  known  that  such  were  not  to  be  enforced 
their  bid  would  have  been  low  enough  to  capture  the  contract. 

After  a  contract  is  once  made,  no  one  other  than  the  Secretary  of 


261 


56  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

the  Treasury,  or,  under  certain  circumstances,  an  Assistant  Secretary, 
has  the  authority  to  make  a  change,  no  matter  how  small.  The 
Superintendent  on  the  work  can  allow  no  variations;  nor  has  even  the 
Supervising  Architect  himself  any  authority  to  make  a  change.  For 
instance,  two  rough  coats  of  plaster  are  required  back  of  a  certain 
wainscot;  it  is  found  advisable  to  omit  the  second;  the  area  is  small, 
and  the  difference  in  expense  nothing;  but  the  Superintendent  must 
obtain  from  the  Contractor  a  proposal  to  omit  this  coat  without  expense 
to  the  Government;  and  after  this  proposal  has  gone  through  the 
different  divisions  of  the  Supervising  Architect's  office  for  note,  com- 
ment, and  recommendation,  the  Assistant  Secretary  accepts  the  pro- 
posal in  regular  form  as  a  public  exigency,  and  with  the  under- 
standing that  it  is  not  to  affect  the  time  for  completion,  or  the  obliga- 
tion of  the  Sureties  on  the  bond;  etc.,  etc.  If  it  were  otherwise,  the 
Superintendent  would  be  constantly  harrassed  by  requests  and  argu- 
ments for  changes;  and  if  he  permitted  changes,  the  worst  of  motives 
would  be  imputed  to  him. 

So  thorough  is  the  system  in  the  Department,  that  there  is  no  de- 
tail too  small  for  the  fullest  consideration.  There  is  probably  no  Archi- 
tect's office  elsewhere  in  the  world  where  all  details  receive  such 
attention;  and  there  are  few  transactions  of  any  nature  occurring 
within  recent  years,  of  which  all  details  cannot  be  obtained  by  any 
official  in  the  office  in  less  than  ten  minutes. 

When  the  red  tape  of  the  Department  is  considered  from  various 
standpoints,  and  the  results  reviewed,  it  should  inspire  more  respect 
than  is  usually  accorded  to  it;  and  the  man  who  is  seeking  contracts 
or  sub-contracts  should  first  of  all  get  into  the  spirit  of  the  business 
methods  of  the  Department,  make  his  bid  to  cover  all  its  requirements, 
and,  if  he  gets  the  contract,  use  his  best  efforts  to  live  up  to  the  letter 
of  every  requirement.  Such  lines  will  bring  success.  Carelessness  in 
following  such  will  bring  failure. 

It  is  often  stated  that  such  and  such  persons  have  the  "inside 
track"  with  Department  work,  and  that  there  is  no  use  bidding 
against  them.  This  is  in  a  sense  true;  but  in  all  such  cases  it  will 
be  found  that  that  "inside  track"  was  laid  by  the  Contractor  getting 
in  line  with  the  Department's  methods  and  doing  business  as  thereby 
required;  and  the  way  is  open  for  any  other  man  to  lay  for  himself 
such  an  inside  track. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  57 

There  is  a  prevalent  impression  that  it  requires  some  special 
effort  to  have  an  opportunity  to  figure  on  Department  work.  There 
could,  however,  be  no  greater  mistake,  as  every  effort  is  made  by  the 
Supervising  Architect  to  obtain  the  best  competition.  For  every 
building,  from  forty  to  sixty  sets  of  drawings  and  specifications  are 
printed  and  sent  without  charge  (being  carried  both  ways  free)  to  any 
general  contractor  who  makes  an  application.  In  a  very  few  instances 
a  certified  cheque  is  required,  the  proceeds  of  which  are  returned 
upon  the  receipt  of  the  drawing,  etc.,  in  the  office.  Sub-contractors 
and  material  men  cannot  be  supplied,  as  it  is  impracticable  to  make 
a  sufficient  number  of  sets,  and  for  the  farther  reason  that  it  is  desired 
that  all  sub-contractors  and  material  men  shall  get  all  the  information 
on  which  they  base  their  bids  from  their  principals,  thus  avoiding  the 
danger  of  differences  of  opinion  that  might  arise  relative  to  the  scope 
of  the  sub-bids. 

When  bids  are  desired,  the  work  is  advertised  for  from  four  to 
seven  weeks,  in  representative  technical  journals  throughout  the 
country  in  the  general  section  in  which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  and 
in  the  local  papers  of  the  town  or  city  in  which  the  building  is  to  be 
erected.  Notices  as  news  items  are  sent  to  a  very  large  line  of  trade 
papers,  and  also  to  Contractors  within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the 
city  whose  addresses  are  available;  but  such  notices  are  discontinued 
if  the  party  addressed  does  not  submit  a  bid  after  notices  of  several 
buildings  have  been  sent. 

Many  material  men  send  in  requests  that  their  specialties  be 
specified,  and  when  they  find  that  that  cannot  be  done,  drop  all  inter- 
est; whereas,  if  they  followed  up  the  matter,  ascertained  to  whom  the 
contract  was  awarded,  and  endeavored  to  arrange  to  sell  any  materials 
handled  by  them  required  under  the  contract,  they  would  often 
obtain  profitable  contracts. 

In  order  that  the  exact  nature  of  the  form  which  has  to  be  signed 
by  parties  to  whom  contracts  for  Treasury  buildings  are  awarded 
may  be  seen,  a  specimen  contract  is  herewith  reproduced,  with  occa- 
sional notes  in  smaller  type  to  explain  its  provisions.  The  form  of 
bond  is  also  printed ;  but,  as  this  varies  little  from  that  used  in  private 
contracts,  no  notes  in  explanation  of  the  provisions  of  the  bond  will 
be  found  necessary. 


58  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

1  CONTRACT 

2  -  BETWEEN    THE 

3  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

4  AND 

5  JOHN  DOE 

6  WHEREAS,     By  advertisement,  duly  made  and  published  according  to 

7  law,  proposals  were  asked  for  furnishing  all  of  the  labor  and  materials 

8  for  the  work  herein  provided  for;  and 

9  WHEREAS,     The  proposal  of  JOHN  DOE 

10  furnished  in  response  thereto,  was  duly  accepted,  as  hereinafter  stated, 

11  on  condition  that  he  execute  a  contract  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of 

12  said  bid 

NOTE. — The  practical  award  of  the  contract  is  a  letter  written  by  the  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (under  written  authority  of  the  Secretary)  to  the  successful 
bidder,  accepting  the  bid  and  stating  the  principal  conditions  which  are  to  govern — such 
as  the  price  to  be  paid,  time  for  completion — approving  such  appliances  as  have  in  the 
proposal  sheet  been  offered  for  carrying  out  the  contract  (provided  such  are  satisfactory), 

and  settling  the  amount  of  bond  to  be  furnished.     This  letter,  referred  to  below,    is 
attached  to,  and  made  a  part  of,  the  formal  contract. 

13  Now,  THEREFORE,  THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  and  entered  into  by  and 

14  between ,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  and 

15  in  behalf  of  the  United  States  of  America,  of  the  first  part,  and  John  Doe, 

16 

17 

18      ,  of  the  second  part, 

19  WITNESSETH:    That  the  party  of  the  second  part,  for  the  consideration 

20  hereinafter  mentioned,  covenants  and  agrees  to  and  with  the  party  of  the 

21  first  part  to  furnish  all  of  the  labor  and  materials  and  do  and  perform  all 

22  the  work  required 

23 

24      

25 

26  in  strict  and  full  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  drawings  numbered 

27      

28      

29 

30  and  such  other  detail  drawings  as  may  be  furnished  to  the  party  of  the 

31  second  part  by  the  Supervising  Architect  of  the  United  States  Treasury 

32  Department;  the  advertisement  for  proposals,  dated 

33  190  ;  the  specification  for  the  work;  the  proposal  dated 

34  190  ,  addressed  to  the  said  Supervising  Architect  by  the  said    party 

35  of  the  second  part;  and  letter  dated 190 ,  addressed  to  the 

36  said  party  of  the  second  part  by 

37      Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  accepting  said 

38  proposal ; 

39 

40 

(1) 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  50 


(2) 

NOTE. — The  proposal  often  covers  several  pages.  First  the  lump  sum  price  is 
stated  for  the  entire  work;  then  follow  many  Alternates— that  is,  the  amount  the  bidder 
will  add  or  deduct  provided  certain  materials  are  substituted  for  those  required  by  th.3 
straight  bid — as,  for  instance,  the  amount  to  be  deducted  for  "Alternate  A,"  substituting 
brick  for  all  plain  surfaces  of  the 

Superstructure  above  1st  floor  line   $ 

After  the  alternates,  unit  prices  are  given.     Thus : 

•  Price  per  thousand  for  common  brick  in  place $ 

After  this  are  lists  of  appliances  to  be  used  in  the  work.     Thus : 

Name  of  boiler  proposed  to  be  used 

Number  of  square  feet  of  grate  surfaces ' 

Etc.,  etc. 

1  a  true  and  correct  copy  of  each  of  which  said  papers  is  attached  hereto 

2  and  forms  a  part  of  this  contract;  and  which  said  numbered  drawings, 

3  bearing  the  signature  of  the  said  Supervising  Architect  and  the  signature 

4  of  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  are  on  file  in  the  Office  of  the  Super- 

5  vising  Architect  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  and  are 

6  hereby  made  part  of  this  contract. 

7  And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  further  covenants  and  agrees 

8  that  the  work  herein  agreed  to  be  performed  shall  be  commenced  prompt- 

9  ly  upon  receipt  of  notice  of  the  approval  of  the  bond  hereto  attached, 

10  and  that  the  same  shall  be  carried  on  in  such  order  and  at  such  times  and 

11  seasons,  and  with  such  force  as  shall  from  time  to  time  be  directed  or 

12  prescribed  by  the  Supervising  Architect  or  his  representative,  and  that 

13  the  same  shall  be  completed  in  all  its  parts  within 

14     

15  from  the  date  of  the  approval  of  said  bond  hereto  attached;  that  all 

16  materials  used  shall  be  of  the  very  best  quality  of  their  respective  kinds; 

17  that  all  the  work  "performed  shall  be  executed  in  the  most  skilful  and 

18  workmanlike  manner,  and  that  both  the  materials  used  and  the  work 

19  performed  shall  be  in  every  respect  to  the  entire  and  complete  satis- 

20  faction  of  the  Supervising  Architect. 

21  And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  expressly  covenants  and  agrees 

22  that  the  bond  hereto  attached  shall  be  security,  also,  for  the  satisfactory 

23  performance  and  fulfilment  of  all  the  guarantees  set  forth  in  or  required 

24  by  said  specification. 

25     

26     

NOTE. — No  official  has  any  right  to  permit  a  Contractor  to  do  any  work  under  the 
contract  until  the  bond  has  been  formally  approved. 

27  It  is  expressly  convenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties 

28  hereto  that  time  is  and  shall  be  considered  as  of  the  essence  of  the  con- 

29  tract  on  the  part  of  the  party  of  the  second  part,  and  in  the  event  that  the 

30  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  fail  in  the  due  performance  of  the 

31  entire  work  to  be  performed  under  this  contract,  by  and  at  the  time 

32  herein  mentioned  or  referred  to,  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall 

33  pay  unto  the  party  of  the  first  part,  as  and  for  liquidated  damages,  and 

34  not  as  a  penalty,  the  sum  of dollars  for  each  and 

35  every  day  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  in  default,  which 


865 


60  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

(3) 

1  said  sum  of dollars  per  day,  in  view  of  the  difficulty 

2  of  estimating  such  damages  with  exactness,  is  hereby  expressly  fixed, 

3  estimated,   computed,  determined,   and   agreed  upon  as  the  damages 

4  which  will  be  suffered  by  the  party  of  the  first  part  by  reason  of  such 
*     default,  and  it  is  understood  and  agreed  by  the  parties  to  this  contract 

6  that  the  liquidated  damages  hereinbefore  mentioned  are  in  lieu  of  the 

7  actual  damages  arising  from  such  breach  of  this  contract;  which  said 

8  sum  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  have  the  right  to  deduct  from 
'9  any  moneys  in  its  hands  otherwise  due,  or  to  become  due,  to  the  said 

10  party  of  the  second  part,  or  to  sue  for  and  recover  compensation  or 

11  damages  for  the  nonperformance  of  this  contract  at  the  time  or  times 

12  herein  stipulated  or  provided  for. 

NOTE. — The  question  of  actual  damages  is  always  a  very  difficult  one  to  settle, 
and  generally  involves  a  lawsuit;  therefore  the  contract  states  the  amount  of  liquidated 
damages,  or  the  amount  settled  and  fixed  in  advance  by  both  parties  to  be  paid  by  the 
Contractor  in  case  of  default.  While  this  amount  is  rarely  less  than  $20.00  a  day,  with 
an  average  of  about  $40.00,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  empowered  by  Congress  to 
remit  so  much  as  will  reduce  such  sum  to  one  that  in  his  judgment  is  right;  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  usual  to  assess  only  such  an  amount  as  will  cover  the  actual  expense 
of  maintaining  a  Superintendent  on  the  ground,  and  any  items  of  rent,  etc.,  and  additional 
inspections  for  which  the  Department  has  actually  to  pay  on  account  of  the  failure  to 
complete  within  contract  time. 

13  The  party  of  the  second  part  further  covenants  and  agrees  to  hold  and 

14  save  the  United  States,  its  officers,  agents,  servants,  and  employees, 

15  harmless  from  and  against  all  and  every  demand,  or  demands,  of  any 

16  nature  or  kind,  for,  or  on  account  of,  the  use  of  any  patented  invention, 

17  article,   or  appliance,  included  in  the  materials  hereby  agreed  to  be 

18  furnished  under  this  contract. 

19  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 

20  that  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  will,  without  expense  to  the  United 

21  States,  comply  with  all  the  municipal  building  ordinances  and  regula- 

22  tions,  in  so  far  as  the  same  are  binding  upon  the  United  States,  and  obtain 

23  all  required  licenses  and  permits,  and  be  responsible  for  all  damages  to 

24  person  or  property  which  may  occur  in  connection  with  the  prosecution 

25  of  the  work;  that  all  work  called  for  by  the  drawings  and  specifications, 

26  though  every  item  be  not  particularly  shown  on  the  first  or  mentioned 

27  in  the  second,  shall  be  executed  and  performed  as  though  such  work  were 

28  particularly  shown  and  mentioned  in  each,  respectively,  unless  other- 

29  wise  specifically  provided ;  that  all  materials  and  work  furnished  shall  be 

30  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  said  Supervising  Architect;  and  that  said 

31  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  responsible  for  the  proper  care  and 

32  protection  of  all  materials  delivered  and  work  performed  by  said  party 

33  of  the  second  part  -until  the  completion  and  final  acceptance  of  same. 

NOTE. — Municipal  laws  are  binding  on  the  Government  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
and  only  outside  of  the  lot  line;  the  land,  when  bought  by  the  Government,  not  only  be- 
comes its  property,  but  it  is,  by  such  sale,  ceded  back  to  the  United  States,  so  that  the 
land  occupied  by  the  public  building  is  no  longer  a  portion  of  the  State,  and  the  State  or 
City  has  no  more  authority  over  it  than  it  has  over  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Cases  sometimes  occur  when  some  city  official  attempts  to  show  authority,  as  in 
one  case  where  a  permit  to  enter  the  sewer  was  denied  until  some  minor  useless  demand 


f#=*^=£s* 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  61 


(4) 

relative  to  the  plumbing  was  complied  with.  The  official  had  a  perfect  right  to  refuse  the 
permit  as  the  sewer  was  in  the  street;  but  after  the  Department  had  decided  not  to  turn 
on  the  water,  and  to  leave  all  plumbing  fixtures  unusable,  the  official  soon  found  it  better 
policy  to  allow  the  connection.  This  policy  is  always  followed  by  the  Government,  as  the 
practice  of  the  Supervising  Architect's  office  in  all  matters  of  this  sort  is  the  best,  and  is 
generally  far  better  than  that  followed  by  many  municipal  laws. 

Inside  the  lot  lines,  municipal  and  state  authority  do  not  exist,  except  for  minor 
police  regulations. 

1  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 

2  that  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  will  make  any  omissions  from, 

3  additions  to,  or  changes  in,  the  work  or  materials  herein  provided  for 

4  whenever- required  by  said  party  of  the  first  part,  the  valuation  of  such 

5  work  and  materials  to  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  contract  unit  of 

6  value  of  material  and  work  referred  to,  or,  in  the  absence  of  such  unit  of 

7  value,  on  prevailing  market  rates,  which  market  rates,  in  case  of  dispute, 

8  are  to  be  determined  by  the  said  Supervising  Architect,  whose  decision 

9  with  reference  thereto  shall  be  binding  upon  both  parties;  and  that  no 

10  claim  for  damages,  on  account  of  such  changes  or  for  anticipated  profits, 

11  shall  be  made  or  allowed. 

12  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  that  no  claim  for  compensation  for 

13  any  extra  materials  or  work  is  to  be  made  or  allowed,  unless  the  same  be 

14  specifically  agreed  upon  in  writing  or  directed  in  writing  by  the  party  of 

15  the  first  part;  and  that  no  addition  to,  omission  from,  or  changes  in  the 

16  work  or  materials  herein  specifically  provided  for  shall  make  void  or 

17  affect  the  other  provisions  or  covenants  of  this  contract,  but  the  differ- 

18  ence  in  the  cost  thereby  occasioned,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall  be  added  to 

19  or  deducted  from  the  amount  of  the  contract;  and,  in  the  absence  of  an 

20  express  agreement   or  provision  to  the  contrary,   no  addition  to,   or 

21  omission  from,  or  changes  in  the  work  or  materials  herein  specifically 

22  provided  for  shall  be  construed  to  extend  the  time  fixed  herein  for  the 

23  final  completion  of  the  work. 

NOTE. — The  somewhat  arbitrary  power  referred  to  in  the  foregoing,  is,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  rarely  exercised ;  and  when  exercised,  the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  make  the 
amount  such  that  it  cannot  be  questioned.  Sometimes  Contractors  imagine  that,  having 
the  contract,  they  can  demand  for  extras  an  exorbitant  price,  and  they  would  be  successful 
in  many  cases  but  for  this  saving  clause. 

24  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 

25  that  all  materials  furnished  and  work  done  under  this  contract  shall  be 

26  subject  to  the    inspection  of    the  Supervising  Architect,  the  superin- 

27  tendent  of  the  building,  and  of  other  inspectors  appointed  by  the  said 

28  party  of  the  first  part,  with  the  right  to  reject  any  and  all  work  or 

29  material  not  in  accordance  with  this  contract;  and  the  decision  of  said 

30  Supervising  Architect  as  to  quality  and  quantity  shall  be  final.     And 

31  it  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 

32  that  said  party  of  the  second  part  will  without  expense  to  the  United 

33  States,  within  a  reasonable  time  to  be  specified  by  the  Supervising 

34  Architect,  remedy  or  remove  any  defective  or  unsatisfactory  material  or 

35  work;  and  that,  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of  the  party  of  the  second 

36  part  immediately  to  proceed  and  faithfully  continue  so  to  do   said  party 


267 


62  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


(5) 

1  of  the  first  part  may  have  the  same  done  and  charge  the  cost  the-jof  to 

2  the  account  of  said  party  of  the  second  part. 

3  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 

4  that  until  final  inspection  and  acceptance  of,  and  payment  for,  all  of  the 

5  material  and  work  herein  provided  for,  no  prior  inspection,  payment, 

6  or  act  is  to  be  construed  as  a  waiver  of  the  right  of  the  party  of  the  first 

7  part  to  reject  any  defective  work  or  material  or  to  require  the  fulfilment 

8  of  any  of  the  terms  of  the  contract. 

9  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  that  the  party  of  the  first  part 

10  shall  have  the  right  to  require  that  any  particular  portion  of  the  work 

1 1  herein  provided  for  shall  be  completed  within  such  time  as  may  be  here- 

12  after  definitely  specified  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  in  written 

13  notice  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part ;  and  that  should  the  said  party 

14  of  the  second  part  fail  to  complete  such  particular  portion  of  the  work 

15  within  the  time  so  specified,  or  fail  to  complete  the  entire  work  contem- 

16  plated  by  this  contract  within  the  time  or  times  herein  stipulated  or 

17  provided  for;  or  fail  to  prosecute  said  work  with  such  diligence  as  in  the 

18  judgment  of  the  party  of  the  first  part  will  insure  the  completion  of  the 

19  said  work  within  the  time  hereinbefore  provided,  the  said  party  of  the 

20  first  part  may  withhold  all  payments  for  work  in  place  until  final  com- 

21  pletion  and  acceptance  of  same,  and  is  authorized  and  empowered,  after 

22  eight  days'  due  notice  thereof  in  writing,  served  personally  upon  or  left 

23  at  the  shop,  office,  or  usual  place  of  abode,  or  with  the  agent  of  the  said 

24  party  of  the  second  part,  and  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  having 

25  failed  to  take  such  action  within  the  said  eight  days  as  will,  in  the  judg- 

26  ment  of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  remedy  the  default  for  which  said 

27  notice  was  given,  to  take  possession  of  the  said  work  in  whole  or  in  part 

28  and  of  all  machinery  and  tools  employed  thereon  and  all  materials 

29  belonging  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  delivered  on  the  site,  and, 

30  at  the  expense  of  said  party  of  the  second  part,  to  complete  or  have  com- 

31  pleted  the  said  work,  and  to  supply  or  have  supplied  the  labor,  materials, 

32  and  tools,  of  whatever  character  necessary  to  be  purchased  or  supplied  by 

33  reason  of  the  deiault  of  the  said  party  of  the  second  part;  in  which  event 

34  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  further  liable  for  any  damage 

35  incurred  through  such  default  and  any  and  all  other  breaches  of  this 

36  contract. 

37  It  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part 

38  shall  have  the  right  of  suspending  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  work 

39  herein  contracted  to  be  done,  whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Super- 

40  vising  Architect,  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  purposes  or  advantage  of 

41  the  work,  and  upon  such  occasion  or  occasions  the  said  party  of  the 

42  second  part  shall,  without  expense  to  the  United  States,  properly  cover 

43  over,  secure,  and  protect  such  of  the  work  as  may  be  liable  to  sustain 

44  injury  from  the  weather,  or  otherwise;  provided  that  for  all  such  sus- 

45  pensions  and  other  delays  caused  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  the 

46  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  allowed  one  day  additional  to  the  time 

47  herein  stated,  for  each  and  every  day  of  such  delays  so  caused,  in  the 

48  completion  of  the  contract,  the  same  to  be  ascertained  by  the  Super- 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  63 

(6) 

1  vising  Architect;  provided,  that  no  claim  shall  be  made  or  allowed  to  the 

2  said  party  of  the  second  part  for  any  damages  which  may  arise  out  of  any 

3  delay  caused  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part. 

4  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  acting  for  and  in  behalf  of  the 

5  United  States,  covenants  and  agrees  to  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  unto 

6  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  or  to  the  heirs,  executors,  administra- 

7  tors,  or  successors,  of  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  in  lawful  money 

8  of  the  United  States,  in  consideration  of  the  herein  recited  covenants  and 

9  agreements  made  by  the  party  of  the  second  part,  the  sum  of  ........... 

10  ............  .  ................  .  ................................. 

11  ............................................................... 

12  And  the  party  of  the  first  part  covenants  and  agrees  that  payments 

13  will  be  made  in  the  following  manner,  viz:  ninety  per  cent  of  the  value 

14  of  the  work  executed  and  actually  in  place,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 

15  party  of  the  first  part,  will  be  paid  from  time  to  time  as  the  work  pro- 

16  gresses  (the  said  value  to  be  ascertained  by  the  party  of  the  first  part), 

17  and  ten  per  cent  thereof  will  be  retained  until  the  completion  of  the  en- 

18  tire  work,  and  the  approval  and  acceptance  of  the  same  by  the  party  of 

19  the  first  part,"which  amount  shall  be  forfeited  by  said  party  of  the  second 

20  part  in  the  event  of  the  nonfulfilment  of  this  contract  ;  it  being  expressly 

21  .  covenanted  and  agreed  that  said  forfeiture  shall  not  relieve  the  party  of 

22  the  second  part  from  liability  to  the  party  of  the  first  part  for  any  and 

23  all  damages  sustained  by  reason  of  any  breach  of  this  contract  ;  provided, 

24  however,  that  no  payment  hereunder  shall  be  due  to  the  said  party  of  the 

25  second  part  until  every  part  of  the  work  to  the  point  of  advancement 

26  reached  —  -on  account  of  which  payment  is  claimed  —  shall  be  found  to  be 

27  satisfactorily  supplied  and  executed  in  every  particular  and  any  and  all 

28  defects  therein  remedied  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  said  party  of  the 

29  first  part. 

30  It  is  an  express  condition  of  this  contract  that  no  Member  of  Congress, 

31  or  other  person  whose  name  is  not  at  this  time  disclosed,  shall  be  admitted 

32  to  any  share  in  this  contract,  or  to  any  benefit  to  arise  therefrom;  and 

33  it  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  that  this  contract  shall  not  be 

34  assigned. 

35  IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  The  parties  hereto  have  hereunto  subscribed 

36  their  names  this  ..................  day  of  ................  A.D.  190  . 

37  ....................................................... 

38  .......................  ................................ 

39  i  i  £       ....................................................... 

40  i|S        ....................................................... 

41  2$jjj  ....................................................... 

42  £5§S     ........................................................ 

43  iS*g     ......................  ................................. 

44  S-s 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


(7) 

We  hereby  certify  that  this  contract  and  bond 
have  been  correctly  prepared  and  compared: 


Chief  of  the  Law  and  Records  Division. 

Superintendent  of  the  Computing  Division. 

Witnesses  to  the  signature  of  the  Contractor: 

Place 


Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 


tt!  f       Contractor.  ;  3SM 

rj   ^   OJ 

NOTE. — The  above  relates  to  one  of  the  most  vexing  questions  both  to  the  Con- 
tractor and  to  the  Department,  which  is  encountered.  When  a  Contractor  gets  hope- 
lessly in  default,  it  is  as  bad  for  him  as  for  the  Department  to  try  to  push  through. 
In  such  cases  he  is  credited  with  the  full  value  of  all  labor  and  materials  on  the  ground ; 
but  for  all  additional  items  to  complete  the  work  covered  by  the  contract,  the  sureties 
on  his  bond  have  to  pay.  Usually  the  bondsmen  take  the  contract  to  finish  the  work; 
and  in  most  cases,  so  far  as  the  Department  is  concerned,  no  litigation  follows. 


(1) 

1  BOND 

2  KNOW  ALL  MEN    BY  THESE  PRESENTS,  That  W6, 

3 

4  • 

5  of  the  City  of ,  County  of ,  and 

6  State  of ,  principal  ,  and 

7 

8 

9'  of  the  City  of ,  County  of ,  and 

10  State    of ,    and 

11  of  the  City  of ,  County  of ,  and 

12  State  of ,  surct ,  are  held  and  firmly  bound  unto  the 

13  United  States  of  America  in  the  sum  of dollars 

14  ($ ),  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  for  the  payment  of 

15  which,  well  and  truly  to  be  made  to  the  United  States,  we  bind  ourselves, 

16  our  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  successors,  and  assigns,  jointly  and 

17  severally,   firmly  by  these  presents 

18  Scaled  with  our  seals  and  dated  this day  of ,  A.D.  1 90 

19  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  ABOVE  OBLIGATION  is  SUCH,     That  whereas  the 

20  said ha.  .  entered  into  a  certain  contract, 

21  hereto  attached,  with Secretary  of  the 

22  Treasury,  acting  for  and  in  behalf  of  the  United  States,  bearing  date  the 

23  day  of ,  A.D.  190   :  Now,  if 

24  the  said 

25  

26  shall  well  and  truly  fulfil  all  the  covenants  and  conditions  of  said  contract, 


270 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  65 

(2) 

1  and  shall  perform  all  the  undertakings  therein  stipulated  by 

2  to  be  performed,  and  shall  well  and  truly  comply  with  and  fulfil  the  con- 

3  ditions  of,  and  perform  all  of  the  work  and  furnish  all  the  labor  and 

4  materials  required  by,  any  and  all  changes  in,  or  additions  to,  or  omissions 

5  from,  said  contract  which  may  hereafter  be  made,  and  shall  perform  all 

6  the  undertakings  stipulated  by to  be  performed  in  any  and  all  such 

7  changes  in,  or  additions  thereto,  notice  thereof  to  the  said  suret 

8  being  hereby  waived,  and  shall  promptly  make  payment  to  all  persons 

9  supplying labor  or  materials  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work 

10  contemplated  by  said  contract,  then  this  obligation  to  be  void;  other- 

1 1  wise,  to  remain  in  full  force  and  virtue 

12  IN  TESTIMONY  WHEREOF,     The  said 

13     

14     ,  principal     ,  and. . 

15 

16  and ,  suret 

17  have  hereunto  subscribed  their  hands  and  affixed  their  seals  the  day  first 

18  above  written 

19  Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered  in  presence  of 

20  $ fo 

21  1^2     , °K£ 

24  r*  •••••••• '..'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  B** 

NOTE. — It  will  be  observed  that  on  each  page,  both  of  form  of  contract  and  of  bond, 
each  type  line  is  numbered,  1,  2,  3,  etc.  This  is  customary  in  all  such  government  doc- 
uments, and  is  for  the  purpose  of  locating  references,  interlineations,  etc. 

At  first  glance,  this  contract  appears  to  be  one-sided  in  that  it 
confers  on  one  side  certain  seemingly  arbitrary  power  which,  if  used 
in  the  extreme,  would  be  disastrous  to  any  Contractor;  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  Department  uses  its  extreme  rights  with  the  utmost 
caution,  and  generally  goes  more  than  "half-way"  in  disputed  settle- 
ments. 

Where  disaster  occurs — such,  for  instance,  as  in  a  cyclonic  wind, 
wrecking  work  in  place,  as  happened  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition; 
or  in  damage  by  fire,  as  in  the  Baltimore  conflagration — the  Depart- 
ment promptly  recommends  that  Congress  make  a  reimbursing 
appropriation  to  be  used  in  replacing  work  damaged ;  and  that  body 
always  responds,  recognizing  a  moral  if  not  a  legal  obligation. 


271 


CONTRACTS 
AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

PART  II 


PREFATORY  NOTE. — Part  I  was  intended  to  initiate  the  student  in 
the  fundamental  principles  of  specification  writing,  by  setting  forth  the 
nature  of  the  preparation  desirable  and  necessary  for  successful  work. 
The  entire  field  was  by  no  means  covered,  nor  was  it  the  intention  to  state 
the  only  lines  which  could  be  followed. 

Part  II  has  been  compiled  from  various  sources  with  the  intention 
of  showing  different  phases  of  the  work,  and  aiding  those  students  who 
have  carefully  worked  out  the  more  fundamental  lines. 

Because  some  things  are  .stated  differently  in  one  part  from  the 
other,  is  no  reason  for  considering  either  line  wrong.  No  one  set  of  rules 
or  directions  will  apply  to  all  cases;  and  therefore  the  differences  between 
the  two  parts,  it  is  believed,  will  lead  the  student  to  compare  in  each  case 
the  two  lines,  and  choose  the  one  best  adapted  to  the  case  he  may  have 
in  mind,  or  else  to  go  on  and  work  out  some  third  or  independent  line  which 
will  better  than  either  fit  the  case.  The  man  who  thinks  and  reasons, 
provided  he  is  well  grounded  in  fundamentals,  will  rarely  make  a  mistake. 

A  Specification  is  a  statement  of  the  conditions  under  which  a 
building  is  to  be  constructed,  and  of  the  items  necessary  therefor 
which  are  not  indicated  on  the  contract  drawings. 

A  Contract  is  a  detailed  statement  of  the  agreement  between  the 
Owner  and  the  Builder,  for  the  execution  of  the  project  as  required  by 
the  drawings  and  by  the  specification. 

GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  THE  SPECIFICATION 

The  specification  presents  the  general  conditions  under  which 
the  work  indicated  by  the  drawings  is  to  be  executed.  It  calls  for 
the  kind  and  quality  of  labor  and  materials  desired,  and  contains  all 
the  written  instructions  and  descriptions  that  may  be  needed  to 
indicate  fully  to  the  bidders  just  what  is  required  to  be  furnished. 

Specifications  must  be  written  in  language  perfectly  intelligible 
to  all  persons  connected  with  the  work;  and  special  care  should  be  ex- 
ercised, as  they,  together  with  the  contract  drawings,  form  the  basis  of 


273 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


the  final  agreement  or  bargain  between  the  Owner  of  the  proposed 
building  and  the  Builder,  which  agreement  is  called  the  "contract." 

The  building  to  be  erected  is  described  by  the  Architect  in  two 
ways — namely,  by  drawings  and  by  a  written  description  (the  speci- 
fication'). The  same  experience  and  ability  that  enable  him  to  make 
the  drawings,  will  be  required  in  giving  the  verbal  statements  neces- 
sary to  express  what  cannot  be  fully  shown  in  the  design.  The 
purpose  of  the  specification  is  to  state  the  character  of  the  work  and 
material,  as  distinguished  from  the  sizes  and  quantities  shown  in  the 
drawings.  The  importance  of  the  specification  is  shown  in  the  fact 
that  it  takes  precedence  over  the  drawings  in  case  of  discrepancy. 

The  term  "specification"  is  used  sometimes,  though  not  common- 
ly among  builders,  as  a  legal  expression  to  mean  the  plans,  specifica- 
tion, and  contract,  which  are  the  essential  documents  in  connection 
with  the  erection  of  a  building. 

It  is  advisable  to  block  out  a  memorandum  specification  indi- 
cating very  generally  the  points  which  will  be  completely  covered 
in  the  finished  copy,  and  to  do  this  at  the  time  the  sketches  are  made, 
which  indicate  in  a  general  way  the  scheme  to  be  followed  later  in  the 
contract  drawings.  On  them  a  close  estimate  of  cost  can  be  made, 
and  the  necessary  modifications  incorporated  to  bring  the  cost  of  the 
work  to  the  required  sum.  In  the  final  writing,  however,  this  memor- 
andum should  be  used  only  for  reference,  as  an  effort  to  copy  any 
part  bodily  into  the  completed  work  is  apt  to  introduce  matter  not 
desired,  or  to  cause  the  omission  of  essential  matter  not  considered 
at  the  time  the  memorandum  was  made. 

As  a  general  rule  the  specification  should  give  the  quality  and 
kind  of  material  used,  and  the  method  of  workmanship,  leaving  the 
quantities  and  sizes  to  be  obtained  from  the  plans.  If  this  method  is 
carefully  followed,  it  makes  the  checking  up  more  simple  in  com- 
pleting the  plans.  Changes  in  quantities  and  dimensions  can  be 
made  on  the  plans,  while  changes  in  material  are  looked  for  in  the 
specification. 

If  the  method  of  writing  the  specifications  very  completely, 
with  a  few  small-scale  drawings,  is  followed,  much  more  will  have 
to  be  written,  especially  in  regard  to  the  sizes  and  quantities  of  mould- 
ings, dimensions  of  expensive  material,  etc.  Drawings  at  a  scale  of 
\  inch  to  a  foot  wjll  require  more  explanation  than  j-inch  scale  plans, 


274 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


unless  |-inch  or  f-inch  scale  details  accompany  the  small-scale 
drawings.  Such  information,  for  example,  as  the  size  of  wooden 
mouldings,  or  the  number  of  inches  required  in  section  for  a  copper 
gutter,  can  be  stated  in  the  specification. 

The  completeness  and  clearness  of  the  specification  generally 
govern  the  amounts  of  the  bids,  and  also  regulate  the  amount  of  extra 
charges  brought  in  by  the  Contractor  at  the  final  settlement. 

Reference  should  be  made  to  everything  required  for  the  build- 
ing, unless  it  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  drawings  leave  nothing  to 
describe  or  require;  but  any  description  of  work  which  is  fully  set 
forth  on  the  drawings,  is  out  of  place. 

The  specification  should  be  correct  and  complete,  and  should  be 
written  by  a  person  who  fully  understands,  and  who  is  in  thorough 
sympathy  with,  the  design. 

The  specification,  while  setting  forth  most  clearly  the  points 
under  consideration,  should  not  be  longer  than  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  convey  the  intended  ideas;  there  should  be  no  repetitions  of 
requirements. 

The  materials  to  be  specified  for  general  use,  should  be  stated 

first  in  this  way:  "All not  otherwise  specified,  to  be -." 

This  not  only  saves  much  repetition,  but  also  gives  a  definite,  stated 
material  for  minor  places  that  otherwise  would  require  long  and 
tedious  listing. 

Accurate  specifications  save  money  to  the  Owner;  but  if  too 
verbose,  they  may  scare  the  bidder,  and  cause  unnecessarily  high 
estimates. 

A  simple  description,  giving  as  briefly  as  possible  the  correct 
idea  to  the  builder,  is  likely  to  achieve  a  better  result  than  a  long 
treatise  on  what  is  recognized  as  good  workmanship  and  material 
by  any  workman  capable  of  undertaking  the  contract  at  all. 

Words  should  be  used  in  their  most  common  sense,  and  if  an 
expression  indicates  only  a  trade  term  for  a  certain  locality,  it  should  be 
so  stated.  "First  quality,"  as  a  trade  term,  for  example,  may  not 
mean  the  best  in  the  market;  "Extra  No.  1"  shingles  are  not  so  good 
as  "Extra;"  "6-cut"  stone  work  may  show  many  "stuns"  which 
would  not  appear  if  "Good  6-cut"  were  called  for.  If  the  Architect 
is  not  fully  informed  on  these  points,  he  should  study  more  carefully 
the  grades  of  materials  being  put  into  buildings,  and  how  they  appear 


275 


70  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

on  buildings  where  they  have  stood  for  some  time.     Visits  to  supply- 
houses,  mills,  shops,  and  stone  yards,  will  repay  the  time  spent. 

Such  expressions  as  "best,"  "proper,"  "sufficient,"  etc.,  are 
capable  of  being  nterpreted  in  very  different  ways  according  to  the 
point  of  view  of  a  good  or  a  poor  workman. 

It  is  often  necessary,  in  order  to  save  superfluous  lettering  on  the 
drawings,  and  also  because  of  lack  of  space,  to  use  abbreviations 
in  indicating  material,  etc.  As  these  abbreviations  differ  in  various 
localities,  it  is  always  necessary  to  insert  in  the  specification  a  "legend" 
or  list  of  abbreviations  used  and  their  meaning. 

Each  requirement  should  be  so  carefully  written  that  there 
can  be  only  one  interpretation,  leaving  no  doubt  as  to  its  true  intent. 
If  the  specifier  hopes  to  get  better  work  through  some  hidden  meaning 
in  the  specification,  he  is  doomed  to  disappointment;  for  the  more 
expensive  interpretation  will  be  used  by  the  Contractor  in  making  up 
his  bid ;  and  later,  when  the  work  is  required,  the  Contractor  may 
plead  that,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  meaning,  he  should  not 
be  required  to  furnish  any  part  without  extra  compensation.  Make 
the  specification  fair  and  honest,  for  it  is  the  basis  on  which  the 
Architect  will  stand  as  arbitrator  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  the  province  of  the  workmen 
to  comprehend  and  not  to  originate;  and  so  the  statement  of  what 
is  to  be  constructed  should  be  made  very  clear,  leaving  nothing  to 
the  imagination  of  the  Contractor;  a  statement  in  the  specification 
of  what  could  be  better  shown  on  the  drawings,  is  apt  to  be  poorly 
comprehended  by  the  builders.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Owner  of 
the  building  is  apt  to  think  more  of  the  specification,  as  he  can  under- 
stand this  more  clearly  than  he  can  the  drawings.  There  should- be 
nothing,  however,  in  the  specification,  or  in  any  part  of  the  work, 
to  discourage  originality,  personal  interest,  and  the  exercise  of  judg- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  where  these  will  not  act  contrary 
to  the  general  scheme  or  the  rapid  progress  of  the  work. 

It  should  be  stated  and  understood  that  every  Contractor  is  to 
report  any  defect  or  discrepancy  as  soon  as  observed,  to  the  Architect, 
and  to  lend  his  personal  interest  and  attention  to  the  best  possible 
execution  of  the  whole  work. 

The  sets  of  specifications,  as  well  as  the  drawings  which  they 
accompany,  both  on  receiving  estimates  and  when  signed  with  the 


276 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  71 

contract,  must  be  kept  unchanged,  for  reference.  Later  changes 
must  be  shown  by  other  drawings  and  by  Addenda  to  the  original 
specifications. 

Interlineations  in  a  specification  should  not  be  made  if  there  is 
time  for  rewriting.  If  made  at  the  last  moment,  they  should  be 
signed  individually  at  the  time  of  signing  the  contract. 

All  changes  after  the  specification  is  completed  and  the  contract 
let,  involving  extra  charges,  should  each  have  a  complete  descriptive 
specification  written,  referring  to  the  general  specification.  This  can 
be  done  in  the  form  of  a  triplicate  letter,  of  which  one  copy  is  sent  to 
the  Contractor,  one  copy  to  the  Owner,  and  the  third  remains  as  the 
office  memorandum,  or  is  attached  to  the  office  copy  of  the  specification. 

The  specification  is  sometimes  written  on  the  drawings ;  but 
these  easily  become  separated,  so  that  the  specification  might  not  be 
considered  for  every  part  of  the  work  on  which  it  would  have  a  bear- 
ing; moreover  there  is  usually  not  sufficient  room  on  the  drawings 
for  going  sufficiently  into  detail. 

Notes  on  drawings  in  the  form  of  a  specification,  have  these 
disadvantages : — They  depart  from  the  principle  of  employing : 

Specifications  For  Verbal    ) 

„  >•    presentation  of  requirements; 

Drawings     For     Graphic    ) 

they -lead  the  Contractor  to  neglect  to  look  at  the  specifications;  they 
never  can  be  complete  verbal  descriptions. 

The  advantages  which  lead  many  Architects  to  specify  by  notes 
on  drawings,  are: — They  are  directly  before  the  Contractor;  they 
can  be  easily  and  permanently  put  on  when  making  drawings;  they 
show  the  exact  location  of  materials  mentioned. 

Specifications  are  usually  typewritten,  several  copies  being 
made,  one  copy  for  the  owner;  one  to  three  for  the  Contractor;  one 
office  copy;  and  extra  copies  which  may  be  used  in  securing  estimates, 
for  the  inspection  of  Building  Department,  etc.  The  specifications 
are  sometimes  lithographed,  printed,  or  mimeographed,  where  many 
copies  are  required.  It  is  the  custom,  in  some  offices,  to  print  in 
typewritten  form,  or  to  mimeograph  the  general  conditions  only, 
which  remain  the  same  in  different  specifications.  Unless  the  general 
conditions  are  written  in  the  same  form  as  the  general  specifications, 
the  Contractors  are  likely  to  overlook  them  and  to  neglect  the  direc- 
tions stated  therein. 


277 


72  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Sometimes  sketches  are  made  in  the  margin  of  the  specification, 
to  indicate  the  use  of  materials  or  to  show  details  that  are  required. 
This  can  be  done  easily  if  the  specifications  are  printed  or  litho- 
graphed ;  but  under  the  present  system  of  duplicating  by  typewriting, 
it  is  difficult  to  do  this.  This  sort  of  information  can  be  shown  more 
completely  on  the  regular  drawings,  which  can  be  reproduced  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  explain  every  item. 

The  writer  of  the  specification  must  clearly  bear  in  mind  through- 
out his  entire  work,  that  the  Architect  is  to  occupy  a  unique  position 
in  carrying  out  the  work — a  position  which,  in  almost  no  other 
line,  is  occupied  by  one  individual.  The  Architect  is  the  confiden- 
tial professional  adviser  of  his  patron;  and  also,  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses, he  is  to  be  the  unbiased  arbitrator,  often  between  opposing 
interests,  one  of  which  is  that  of  his  patron  or  employer.  The 
latter  is  a  position  not  only  difficult  but  generally  impossible  to 
occupy  at  all  times  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  parties;  and  as  the 
unconscious  influence  of  the  patron's  interests  is  very  apt  to  warp 
the  judgment  of  the  Architect  in  making  interpretations  which 
must  govern,  it  is  very  necessary  that  in  writing  the  specification 
the  matter  be  stated  so  clearly  that  differences  of  interpretation 
will  occur  seldom,  and  that  when  they  do  occur  the  specification 
will  give  the  Architect  ample  standing  room  so  that  his  judgment 
may  be  accepted  without  either  party  feeling  wronged. 

There  are  certain  data  that  it  is  advisable  to  obtain  before  writ- 
ing the  specification — such  as  the  data  obtained  from  test  borings 
to  determine  the  condition  of  the  soil,  also  the  location  of  sewers 
and  water-supply  pipes,  etc. 

Preliminary  estimates  are  generally  obtained  from  one  "reliable 
Contractor,"  who  can  be  called  in  before  the  specification  is  com- 
plete, to  estimate  the  relative  cost  of  certain  parts  of  the  building, 
where  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  which  of  two  methods  or  materials 
to  use. 

It  is  better,  however,  for  the  Architect  to  become  familiar  with 
the  cost  of  different  items,  so  that  he  can  estimate  for  himself  the 
cost  of  various  schemes,  unless  the  Owner  has  settled  on  one  partic- 
ular Contractor  to  whom  the  work  is  to  be  let.  When  the  "reliable 
Contractor"  is  called  in,  he  appreciates  fully  that  the  time  he  puts 
on  the  estimate  will  be  in  the  nature  of  gratuitous  services  or  nearly 


278 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  73 

so,  and  therefore  careful  figures  are  not  made,  and  often  the  Archi- 
tect and  Owner  are  both  misled. 

The  opening  description  of  the  work  should  be  straight-forward, 
clear,  and  concise,  and  the  specification  carefully  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  different  trades,  so  that  each  sub-contractor  and  the  esti- 
mator of  every  small  shop  may  find  the  work  he  is  to  do  definitely 
indicated.  It  is  easy  for  a  general  Contractor  to  unite  sub-contracts 
and  let  several  to  one  firm,  but  very  difficult  to  subdivide  a  specifica- 
tion where  trades  are  not  separated. 

This  should  not  lead  the  Architect,  however,  to  separate  work 
among  different  trades  where  for  safety,  warranty,  or  promptness, 
certain  parts  of  the  work  should  all  be  under  the  control  of  one  con- 
tractor, e.g.,  the  roofer. 

Each  item  describes  the  class  of  material  to  be  used  and  the 
kind  of  labor  to  be  employed.  The  number  of  pieces  and  the  dimen- 
sions are  left  to  the  plans;  though,  when  the  plans  are  incomplete 
on  account  of  the  small  scale,  the  quantities  and  sizes  must  be  speci- 
fied fully  and  completely. 

The  usual  method  of  arranging  a  specification  is  to  classify 
the  items  under  each  building  trade,  and  then  subdivide  the  build- 
ing trades  as  much  as  possible.  Commence  with  the  work  to  be 
done  on  the  foundation  of  the  building,  and  carry  the  description 
up  through  the  building  to  the  roof  chronologically  in  the  order  of 
construction.  In  this  way  there  is  less  danger  of  omissions.  Some- 
times* it  is  advisable  to  describe  a  certain  part  entirely  under  the 
trade  that  would  have  general  charge  of  it.  For  example,  an  iron 
staircase  would  be  described  under  "Iron  work,"  and  the  descrip- 
tion would  include  a  wooden  hand-rail.  Metal  flashings  are  often 
specified  to  be  furnished  by  the  carpenter,  mason,  or  plumber  for 
use  in  connection  with  their  work,  though  frequently  these  are  pro- 
vided by  the  metal  worker  and  set  by  the  carpenter,  mason,  or  plumber. 

An  expeditious  method  of  writing  specifications,  which  may 
be  employed  to  advantage  in  large  offices  wrhen  the  writer  is  not 
intimately  associated  in  the  work  of  preparing  the  drawings,  is  to 
write  each  item  on  a  catalogue  card.  The  best  sizes  for  this  are 
either  4  by  6  inches  or  5  by  8  inches.  The  latter  is  preferable, 
being  the  width  of  ordinary  typewritten  specifications,  and  large 
enough  for  notes  and  memoranda  regarding  each  particular  item. 


279 


74  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


Guide  cards  may  be  used  to  separate  these  items  under  their  different 
headings,  and  the  items  can  be  easily  rearranged  or  added  to  at 
any  point.  When  a  new  specification  is  written,  all  that  is  necessary 
to  do  is  to  put  markers  or  wire  clips  on  the  cards  that  are  to  be  used, 
making  any  changes  that  may  be  necessary  in  pencil  on  the  card 
and  writing  or  dictating  any  additional  items  for  insertion.  The 
whole  specification  can  then  be  typewritten  from  these  cards  on 
which  the  "signals"  have  been  placed,  making  as  many  copies  as 
required.  Whenever  cards  are  removed  from  the  case,  large  "out" 
markers  are  put  in  their  places,  so  that  they  will  be  returned  to 
their  proper  locations. 

When  the  specifications  are  ready  to  be  typewritten,  they  should 
be  carefully  checked  up  with  the  drawings  and  with  the  "Specifica- 
tion Reminder,"  which  will  be  explained  later. 

In  writing  out  the  specification,  it  is  advisable  and  usual  on 
public  work  to  number  every  clause  under  the  different  trades  in 
order.  These  will  be  found  ve"ry  useful  for  reference  and  corre- 
spondence during  the  work.  An  index  may  be  placed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  specification. 

There  are  many  indirect  items  which  should  be  fully  covered 
by  the  specifications — for  example,  that  the  Contractor  shall  take 
care  of  certain  minor  points,  such  as  clearing  out  rubbish,  covering 
the  windows,  and  heating  the  building  while  the  plaster  is  drying, 
putting  up  staging,  etc.  Even  when  there  is  a  general  Contractor 
for  a  building — which  would  relieve  both  Architect  and  Owner  of 
any  direct  responsibility — it  saves  much  discussion  between  the 
sub-contractors  if  such  points  as  these  are  included  in  the  specifica- 
tion. 

Where  there  are  definitely  stated  requirements  in  State  or 
Municipal  building  laws,  use  the  same  wording  or  expressions  in 
the  specification.  These  are  the  result  of  long  study  and  practical 
experience,  and  often  the  difference  of  a  single  word  will  confuse 
or  make  the  meaning  much  less  clear  to  Contractors.  The  specifi- 
cations may  be  abbreviated  by  referring  directly  to  the  building 
laws,  and  omitting  what  is  there  clearly  stated. 

Electric  wiring,  for  example,  should  be  done  according  to  the 
"Rules  and  Requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 


280 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  75 

writers  for  the  Installation  of  Electric  Wiring,  as  Recommended 
by  the  Underwriters'  National  Electrical  Association." 

While  every  specification  should  require  that  the  work  as  a 
whole  and  in  all  details  shall  be  carried  out  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Architect,  such  requirement  must  carry  with  it  the  full  under- 
standing that  the  Architect  shall  be  satisfied  when  the  Contractor 
has  furnished  what  the  clear  meaning  of  the  drawings  and  specifi- 
cations calls  for,  and  under  no  circumstances  shall  the  Architect 
demand  other  than  what  is  required  by  the  drawings  and  specifica- 
tions, under  the  excuse  that  what  has  been  furnished  is  not  satisfac- 
tory to  him. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  stipulate  that  certain  portions  of  the 
work,  etc.,  are  warranted  to  exercise  their  functions  properly  when 
completed,  and  for  a  certain  period  of  time  thereafter.  For  ex- 
ample, the  heating  specification  may  stipulate  that  the  apparatus 
is  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  70  degrees  when  that  of  the  outside 
is  at  zero  or  30  degrees  below.  Or  it  may  be  that  the  roofer  is  to 
warrant  the  roof  to  remain  waterproof  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 
Such  warranty  clauses  should  be  sparingly  used,  as,  in  case  of  defect 
in  the  portion  warranted,  it  is  generally  as  expensive  to  get  the  per- 
son who  installed  the  defective  portion  to  remedy  it,  as  to  get  the 
work  done  over  by  another  party,  and  the  delays  incident  are  annoy- 
ing in  the  extreme.  When  such  warranty  clause  is  used,  it  is  gen- 
erally made  an  excuse  for  constantly  changing  the  work  from  that 
specified,  under  the  plea  that,  if  carried  out  in  accord  with  the  con- 
tract, the  work  cannot  be  warranted.  Such  changes  are  always 
in  favor  of  poorer  work.  It  is  generally  better  for  the  Architect 
to  know  just  what  will  do  the  work,  see  that  such  is  installed,  and 
leave  the  warrant  clause  out. 

Specifying  a  particular  make  or  brand  of  material  is  apt  to 
carry  the  impression  that  the  writer's  knowledge  is  limited  or  that 
he  is  unduly  influenced  in  favor  of  the  article  specified.  If  a  par- 
ticular appliance  is  required,  it  is  well  to  except  it  from  the  con- 
tract, and  say  that  the  Owner  will  furnish  a delivered 

on  the  site,  which  the  Contractor  is  to  set  in  place  and  connect,  etc. 

In  large  and  important  work  it  is  sometimes  customary  for 
the  Contractor  to  submit  the  names  of  the  sub-contractors  whom 
he  proposes  to  deal  with,  for  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the 


281 


76  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Architect.  This  requirement  is  inserted  in  order  to  prevent  work- 
men of  indifferent  character  getting  onto  the  work.  It  is  a  very 
delicate  problem  for  the  Architect  to  pass  judgment  on  sub-con- 
tractors; and  if,  after  approval,  they  furnish  unsatisfactory  material, 
it  is  embarrassing  to  reject  it  if  it  puts  the  general  Contractor  to 
loss.  This  clause,  therefore,  as  well  as  the  warranty  clause,  should 
be  used  only  after  very  mature  consideration,  and  never  in  the  less 
important  work. 

In  important  work,  specifications  on  electric  wiring,  heating, 
plumbing,  ventilation,  etc.,  are  frequently  prepared  by  consulting 
engineers  employed  by  the  Owner  to  arrange  these  points  under 
the  direction  of  the  Architect.  In  this  case  the  engineers  prepare 
the  specifications,  which  can  be  included  in  the  Architect's  other 
specifications;  and  any  changes  that  may  come  up  during  the  progress 
of  the  work  should  be  referred  to  the  consulting  engineer  by  the 
Architect,  before  change  is  made.  This  is  quite  customary  in  the 
erection  of  high  buildings,  where  engineers  are  frequently  employed 
to  lay  out  the  steel  construction. 

But  when  the  services  of  specialists  in  any  line  are  required, 
it  should  in  all  cases  be  understood  that  the  general  scheme  for 
the  work  should  not  be  altered,  that  the  Engineer  should  adapt 
his  portion  of  the  work  so  as  to  carry  out  the  general  plan,  and  should 
not  insist  on  modifying  this  to  suit  any  particular  methods  or  appli- 
ances he  may  desire  to  use. 

In  a  building  operation,  four  questions  always  arise: 

(1)  What  is  to  be  done? 

(2)  How  is  it  to  be  done? 

(3)  When  is  it  to  be  completed? 

(4)  What  is  to  be  the  manner  of  payment? 

The  first  two  questions  are  answered  by  the  plans  and  speci- 
fications. 

Although  the  last  two  are  finally  stated  in  the  contract,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  some  reference  should  be  made  to  them  in  the  specifica- 
tion, for  information  to  bidders. 

The  periods  for  completion  may  be  stated  in  terms  of  months 
and  days  after  the  signing  of  the  contract. 


282 


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CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  77 

Payments  on  the  contract  may  be  by : 
Stated  sum, 
Cost  plus  a  percentage, 

Cost  plus  a  percentage  with  guaranteed  limit, 
Cost  plus  a  fixed  sum. 

The  first  is  the  usual  method  of  contracting. 
Full  information  relative  to  the  method  of  payment  which  the 
Owner  prefers  and  intends  to  incorporate  in  the  contract,  should 
be  fully  set  forth  in  the  specification,  as  this  is  a  matter  which  will 
have  a  milked  influence  on  bidders. 

While  the  first  method  is  the  usual  one  of  awarding  a  contract, 
unless  the  payments  can  be  arranged  so  that  the  owner  pays  for 
the  material  and  labor  at  frequent  intervals,  it  follows  that  the  Con- 
tractor has  to  use  considerable  of  his  own  capital  or  credit  to  carry 
the  work  along.  For  this  he  must  be  paid;  and  therefore,  as  the 
Owner  generally  has  the  funds  prior  to  beginning  work,  it  is  advis- 
able to  state  in  the  specification  such  dates  and  percentage  of  pay- 
ments as  will  permit  the  Contractor  to  carry  on  the  work  with  a 
minimum  charge  for  the  use  of  his  own  capital  or  credit. 

The  completeness  and  clearness — and  therefore  the  useful- 
ness— of  a  specification,  depends  on  its  systematic  arrangement. 
The  first  thing  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  prepare  a  skeleton  or  outline 
of  what  is  later  to  be  the  finished  form.  This  should  consist,  in 
the  first  place,  of  a  list  of  the  different  general  branches  of  the  work, 
such  as: 

MASONRY. 
STEEL  AND  IRON. 
ROOFING  AND  SHEET  METAL. 
Etc.,  Etc. 

Then,  under  each  of  these  general  heads  should  be  set  a  list  of  sub- 
heads, in  general,  as  follows;  but  it  is  not  good  policy  to  attempt 
to  cover  every  point  before  beginning  the  writing  of  the  specification 
proper,  as,  in  writing,  items  will  constantly  occur  to  the  writer  in 
connection  with  what  has  already  been  written. 

MASONRY— 

Alterations  and  Shoring. 
Demolition  and  Removal. 
Stone  Masonry. 
Brick— Terra  Gotta. 
Etc.,  Etc. 


283 


78  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

STEEL  AND  IRON— 
Structural. 
Ornamental. 
Etc.,  Etc. 

After  this  skeleton  has  been  prepared,  the  major  part  of  the 
work  is  done,  as  the  filling-in  and  detailing  of  requirements  under 
each  heading  is  a  comparatively  simple  operation. 

In  smaller  work,  when  the  Architect  is  the  designer  and  specifi- 
cation writer,  the  matter  will  be  or  should  be  so  in  mind  that  no 
assistance  should  be  required  in  •  arranging  this  skeleton ;  but  in 
larger  offices,  where  generally  the  first  time  the  writer  sees  the  draw- 
ings is  when  he  begins  consideration  of  the  specifications,  it  is  very 
desirable — in  fact,  necessary — for  him  to  have  some  reminder  of 
the  items  which  are  to  be  considered.  These  reminders  were  referred 
to  on  page  73  in  connection  with  the  card  index  of  subjects;  and  as 
practice  extends,  these  specification  cards,  with  their  accumulated 
notes,  become  very  valuable.  It  is  desirable,  as  items  are  observed 
in  technical  papers  and  about  buildings  in  course  of  construction, 
and  from  conversation,  to  make  careful  and  much  abbreviated  notes 
from  day  to  day  qn  the  cards  under  the  proper  heading,  which  will 
recall  the  details  of  the  case  when  this  will  be  of  assistance  later. 

There  is  given  on  page  79  a  list  of  headings  which  cover  certain 
items  generally  needed,  with  occasional  notes  written  out  to  illustrate 
how  other  notes  can  be  made  when  experience  furnishes  the  matter. 
It  is  especially  desirable  to  call  attention  in  the  notes  to  any  diffi- 
culties in  any  line  of  work  which  have  been  particularly  noted  from 
any  source. 

In  order  to  make  the  best  use  of  these  reminders  in  preparing 
a  specification,  the  drawings,  after  they  have  been  delivered  to  the 
specification  writer,  should  be  most  carefully  studied  so  that  the 
whole  scheme  of  design,  arrangement,  use,  construction,  and  decora- 
tion may  be  well  in  mind.  Having  obtained  a  general  compre- 
hensive impression,  the  general  method  of  obtaining  the  results 
desired  is  next  to  be  studied.  A  considerable  time  can  be  spent 
in  this  work  to  advantage.  It  is  a  good  plan  after  what  is  considered 
to  be  a  sufficient  period  of  study,  to  sit  down,  close  the  eyes,  and 
call  up  in  mind  the  different  parts  as  a  whole  and  in  detail.  If  the 
scheme  then  appears  clear,  and  can  be  followed  out  understand- 


284 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  79 

ingly  in  mind,  without  reference  to  the  drawings,  then — and  not 
until  then — is  the  writer  fitted  to  begin  the  work.  He  can  then 
with  surprising  rapidity  lay  out  his  first  line  of  main  heads,  and 
with  a  similar  rapidity  his  subheads,  which  completed  the  main 
part  of  the  work  is  done.  Stress  is  here  again  laid  on  the  importance 
of  the  clear  mental  comprehension  of  the  entire  scheme,  as  a  whole 
and  in  detail,  before  a  word  is  written.  If.  the  writer  fails  in  this 
grasp,  his  specification  will  be  neither  clear  nor  complete,  and  is 
very  apt  to  degenerate  into  a  series  of  disconnected  sentences  with 
little  or  no  affinity  to  those  which  precede  or  follow. 

After  the  grasping  of  the  situation  as  above  outlined,  look 
through  the  lists  of  general  headings,  noting  each  head  that  applies 
to  the  work  in  question;  then  look  under  each  Subdivision  of  the 
general  headings,  in  a  similar  way  noting  each  item  that  applies  to 
the  scheme  under  consideration. 

SPECIFICATION  REMINDER 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS— 

Division  of  Work.  Defects. 

Work  to  be  Done.  Assist  Other  Contractors. 

Quality.  Cutting. 

Materials  and  Labor.  The  Architect. 

Delivery  of  Materials.  Drawings  and  Specification. 

The  Contractor.  Detail  Drawings. 

Laying  Out  the  Work.  Charges. 

Engineer.  Bond. 

Permits.  Insurance. 

Building  Laws.  Ownership  of  Old  Material. 

Fences.  Water  Supply. 

Office.  Temporary  Water-Closet. 

Vouchers.  Contingent  Work. 

Inspection.  Award. 

Protect  Work.  Terms  of  Payment. 

Rubbish.  Changes. 

Scaffolding.  Time  for  Completion. 

MASONRY- 
ALTERATIONS  AND  SHORING — 

Shoring.  Piers. 

Raising.  New  Underpinning. 

New  Openings. 


285 


80 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


DEMOLITION  AND  REMOVAL — 

Old   Building. 
Tearing  Down. 
Removing  Walls. 
Brick. 

EXCAVATION  AND  GRADING — 
Location. 


Old  Vaults  and  Cisterns. 
House  Mover. 

Ownership    of    Old    Material. 
Removal  of  Old  Material. 


Clearing  the  Site. 
Excavate  for  Cellar. 
Excavate  for  Areas. 
Excavate  for  Drains. 
Excavate  for  Water. 
Excavate  for  Cesspools. 
Blasting. 
Grading. 

(If  possible,  have  the  scheme  of  grading  laid 
out  before  beginning  to  build,  in  order  that  the 
earth  excavated  from  the  cellar  may,  with  one 
handling,  be  carried  to  the  proper  location  to  carry 
out  the  scheme.) 

STONE  MASONRY— 

Lime  —Cement — Sa^d. 
Non-staining  Cement. 
Mortar— Ties. 
Facing  Walls. 
Bed  of  Stone. 
Bond  of  Stone. 

CUT  STONE — 

Stock — Limestone — Sandstone 

— Granite. 
Finish. 

CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION — 

Cement — Sand — Aggregate. 
Mixing. 

BRICK  LAYING — 

Common  Brick — Sand  Mould — 

Pressed — Enameled. 
Lime — Cement — Sand. 
Bond;  Common,  English,  Flemish. 
Cutting. 
Wetting  Brick. 
Freezing  Weather. 
Bedding  Window-frames. 
Chimneys,  Flue-linings. 


Footings  below  Frost. 

Shoring. 

Bracing. 

Temporary  Piling. 

Surplus  Earth. 

Save    Loam. 

Trees. 

Shrubs. 


Damp-Proofing. 

Coping. 

Curbing. 

Concrete    Floors. 

Steps. 

Walks. 


Carving. 
Cleaning. 


Reinforcing   Materials. 
Blocks — Beams — Forms. 


Chimney   Caps. 

Chimney  Bars. 

Chases. 

Hollow  Walls. 

Boiler  Setting. 

Register  Openings. 

Rough     Fireplace     Openings. 

Iron  Doors. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


81 


TERRA  COTTA — 
Partitions. 
Floors. 
Furring. 

PLASTERING — 
Grounds. 
Wood  Lath. 
Metal  Lath. 
Back  Plaster. 
Two-coat  Work. 
Three-coat  Work. 
Exterior  Plaster. 

TILE  WORK — MARBLE  AND  SLATE- 
Fireplaces. 

Interior  Marble  Work. 
Mosaic. 
Terrazzo. 


Fireproofing. 
Ornamental  Terra-Cotta. 


Pebble   dash. 

Lime  and  Sand  Mortar. 

Hair. 

Patent  Plaster. 

Corner  Beads. 

Cornices. 

Relief  Work. 


Bathroom. 
Walls— Floors. 
Plumbing  Marble. 


Quality 
Tests. 


STRUCTURAL  STEEL  AND  IRON— 
Cast.  Bolts. 


Wrought. 


Rivets. 


ORNAMENTAL  IRON  AND  BRONZE— 


Cast. 

Forged 

Grilles 

Elevator  Enclosures. 


Steps. 

Coal-Hole  Cover. 
Stable     Fittings. 


Fire-Escape. 
Balconies. 
Wire    Guards. 


Copper. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

Gutters. 

Ventilators. 

Flashings. 


Tar  and  Gravel. 

Copper. 

Canvas. 

Tin. 

Shingles. 


MISCELLANEOUS  IRON— 

Tree  Guards. 
Wheel  Guards. 


SHEET-METAL  WORK— 

Skylights. 
Cornice  Work. 
Eave  Troughs. 
Speaking  Tubes. 
Ventilation  Flues. 
Heat    Ducts. 

ROOF— 

Slate. 
Valley. 
Flashings. 
Snow  Guards. 


287 


82  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


CARPENTER  WORK— 

Framing.  Exterior  Finish. 

Sheathing.  Cornice. 

Lining.  Interior  Finish  Pine. 

Flooring.  "       Hardwood. 

Finish  Lumber.  "  "       Natural. 

Paper.  "  "       for  Paint. 

Doors.  Closets. 

Sash.  Refrigerators. 

Blinds.  Mantels. 

Glass.  Stairs. 

Window  Weights  and  Cord. 


HARDWARE— 

Locks.  Knocker. 

Knobs.  Hinges. 

Escutcheons.  Special  Hardware  for  Casement 

Sash  Locks.  Windows. 

Sash  Lifts.  House    Number. 

Springs."  Blind   Fixtures. 

Hooks.  Screen. 


PAINTING— 

Quality  of  Lead.  Number    of   Coats    for  Each    Ma- 

"     Oil.  terial. 

"         "     Shellac.  Finish. 

"         "     Varnish.  Exterior    Stains. 

Colors.  Metal  Work. 

Putty.  Roof. 

Whitewash.  Interior  Walls. 

Plumbing  Pipes. 

GLASS— 

Plate— Double-Thick;  Single-  Stained— Ribbed;  Wire. 

Thick.  Glazing;  Cleaning. 

HEATING— 

Laying  out  Work.  Boiler. 

Cutting,  etc.  Piping  and  Hangers. 

Foundation.  Valves. 

Flue.  Heat  Regulator. 

Furnace.  Radiators. 

Cold-  and  Hot-Air  Ducts.  Tank. 

Registers.  Boiler  and  Pipe  Covering. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  .      83 

PLUMBING— 

Fixtures.  Water  Front. 

Bowls.  Water  Piping. 

Closets.  Shut-off  Cocks. 

Bathtubs.  Soil  Piping. 

Wash-Trays.  Branches. 

Sinks.  Traps. 

Urinals.  Refrigerator  Waste. 

Connection  with  Waste  Pipes.  Back-Air  Pipes. 

Laundry  Stove.  Fresh-Air  Inlet. 
Hot-Water  Boiler. 

GAS— 

Pipes.  Stove  Connection. 

Tests.  Gas  Machine. 

Outlets.  Gas  Logs. 

ELECTRIC  ,WORK— 

General  Description  of  Scheme.  Fixtures. 

Wire.  Switchboard. 

Conduits.  Switches. 

Outlets.  Meter  Connections. 

The  above  lists  as  given  are  not  intended  to  be  in  any  sense 
so  complete  as  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  to  work  in  all  buildings.  They 
are  inserted  to  illustrate  the  scheme  often  used  in  offices  where  the 
specification  writer  is  somewhat  unfamiliar  with  the  work  already 
laid  out  on  the  drawings.  Practice  differs  so  radically,  and  the 
range  of  building  is  so  wide,  that  a  comprehensive  list  covering  all 
the  multiplicity  of  questions  that  arise  in  connection  with  build- 
ings, would  be  cumbersome.  But,  following  the  lines  above  laid 
out,  each  specification  writer  can  rapidly  accumulate  what  he  needs 
in  his  particular  line;  and  the  operation  of  seeking  for  new  items 
of  importance  in  practice  will  be  a  source  from  which  much  valuable 
information  and  experience  will  be  obtained. 

Before  proceeding  further,  the  reader  should  prepare  a  schedule 
following  the  above  lines,  but  should  specify  under  each  heading  at 
least  double  the  number  of  sub-items  mentioned. 

He  should  also  write  a  description  of  the  character  of  work  re- 
ferred to  by  each  heading,  these  descriptions  each  to  contain  approx- 
imately one  hundred  words.  For  instance,  under  the  head  of  "Heat- 
ing," a  statement  along  lines  similar  to  those  given  below  would  fill 
the  requirements. 


84       .  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

HEATING 

There  are  five  principal  methods  of  heating  dwellings — namely, 
by  Fireplaces,  by  Stoves,  by  Furnace,  by  Steam  boiler,  and  by 
Hot-water  boiler,  all  adapted  to  fuels  in  common  use. 

Fireplaces  are  suitable  for  mild  climates,  and  to  supplement 
more  efficient  apparatus  in  cold  climates. 

Stoves  are  the  most  economical,  but  are  often  objectionable 
fixtures. 

Furnaces  deliver  heated  air  to 'the  various  rooms;  and,  for 
small  buildings,  are  satisfactory. 

Steam  and  hot  water  generally  supply  heat  from  radiators  in 
each  room.  Steam  is  quicker  to  respond  than  hot  water;  it  there- 
fore should  be  used  when  quick  changes  in  temperature  are  desired, 
and  in  the  larger  class  of  buildings,  where  it  is  more  easily  controlled. 

Hot  water  should  be  used  when  an  even  temperature  at  all 
times  is  desired. 

The  accompanying  specification  is  given  to  show  the  method 
of  writing  a  specification  for  a  certain  building.  In  every  case  the 
Architect  should  consider  every  item  that  is  wanted  on  the  building, 
and  should  write  out  exactly  what  is  desired. 

New  problems  are  constantly  arising  which  tax  the  ingenuity 
of  even  the  experienced  Architect,  and  which  require  new  directions. 
Many  building  operations  will  have  requirements  so  unusual  that 
any  aid  except  that  of  general  experience  will  be  of  little  value.  As 
a  rule,  however,  careful  and  constant  reference  to,  and  comparison 
with,  the  plans,  adding  to  or  changing  similar  previously  written 
or  printed  specifications  as  used  on  past  work,  or  separated  item 
by  item  on  cards,  will  give  a  good  result.  This  should  be  carefully 
checked  with  the  "specification  reminder,"  to  discover  omissions, 
before  sending  out  the  drawings.  In  work  containing  unusual  or 
elaborate  detail  in  intricate  alterations,  it  will  be  easier  to  write  out 
the  specification  completely  than  to  alter  an  existing  one. 

At  first,  with  the  plans  closely  in  mind,  and  generally  hung  on 
a  wall  or  screen  near  by,  the  specification  writer  should  block  out  the 
list  of  headings,  forming  a  skeleton  or  general  synopsis  of  the  whole 
specification.  Then  he  should  go  through  the  different  trades,  check- 
ing, writing,  and  dictating,  either  following  a  card  catalogue,  taking 
a  printed  form  or  standard  specification  and  filling  in  the  blanks,  or 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  85 

using  an  old  specification  and  interlining  the  changes,  which  are  then 
copied  to  form  the  complete  document.  Extra  care  must  be  taken 
to  cover  new  and  important  points  that  are  likely  to  be  insufficiently 
studied.  It  will  be  found  quite  difficult  to  make  an  old  form  apply 
to  a  new  building,  without  the  use  of  too  many  general  terms  and 
"blanket  clauses." 

Having  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  subject,  the  following  list 
of  headings  may  be  understood  to  cover  the  work  in  question. 

I.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

II.  EXCAVATING  AND  GRADING. 

III.  STONE  WORK. 

IV.  BRICK  WORK. 

V.     LATHING  AND  PLASTERING. 
VI.     METAL  WORK. 
VII.     CARPENTRY— 
Framing. 
Exterior  Finish.  * 
Interior  Finish. 
Hardware. 
VIII.     GLAZING. 
IX.     PAINTING. 
X.     HEATING. 
XI.     PLUMBING. 
XII.     GAS-FITTING. 
XIII.     ELECTRIC  WIRING. 

After  preparing  the  general  list  of  headings  as  above,  prepare  the 
list  of  subheadings  in  general,  thus:  under  "GENERAL  CONDITIONS" 
we  would  have  the  divisions  "Material  and  Labor,"  "The  Con- 
tractor," "The  Architect,"  "The  Drawings  and  Specifications," 
"Details,"  "Time  for  Completion,"  etc.;  under  "EXCAVATION," 
"Preparation  of  Site,"  etc. 

The  following  is  illustrative  of  the  form  in  which  the  require- 
ments and  conditions  should  be  put: 

SPECIFICATION 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

Materials  and  Labor.  All  materials  and  labor  required  for  the 
complete  execution  of  the  work  are  to  be  of  the  best  quality  unless 
otherwise  provided,  and  are  to  be  furnished  in  place  by  the  Con- 
tractor; also  all  scaffolding,  apparatus,  etc, 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


The  Contractor.  Personal  superintendence  is  to  be  given  by 
the  Contractor  to  the  work,  and  a  competent  foreman  is  to  be  at  all 
times  on  the  work.  He  is  to  lay  out  the  work  carefully,  and  will  be 
held  responsible  for  any  mistakes  which  he,  or  any  one  in  his  employ, 
or  any  of  his  sub-contractors,  may  make. 

He  is  to  be  responsible,  also,  for  any  accidents  either  to  person  or 
property,  which  may  occur  in  connection  with  the  execution  of  the 
work  either  directly  or  indirectly,  for  which  otherwise  the  Owner 
might  suffer. 

He  is  to  obtain  all  permits  from  the  city  officials  required  by 
ordinances;  is  to  pay  all  Tees  for  water  supply,  sewer  connections, 
etc. ;  and  is  to  follow  all  the  requirements  of  the  building  laws  whether 
incorporated  in  this  specification  or  not. 

He  is  to  be  responsible  for  all  materials,  whether  incorporated 
in  the  building  or  not,  until  the  final  acceptance  of  the  work;  and  any 
damage  there  may  be  from  any  cause  is  to  be  repaired ;  or,  if  beyond 
"repair,  the  damaged  portion  is  to  be  replaced. 

He  is  to  keep  the  building  fully  insured;  and  all  policies  are  to 
be  so  drawn  that  the  loss,  if  any,  is  to  be  paid  to  the  Owner  as  his 
interest  may  appear. 

He  is  to  provide  such  fences  as  will  be  required  to  protect  adjoin- 
ing property. 

The  Architect.  The  Architect  will  have  charge  of  the  work,  and 
is  to  exercise  such  supervision  as  will  enable  him  to  determine  whether 
the  true  spirit  and  intent  of  the  drawings  and  specification  is  being 
carried  out.  If,  in  the  exercise  of  this  function,  he  finds  that  any 
employee  of  the  Contractor  is,  through  incompetence  or  wilfulness, 
a  detriment  to  the  work,  he  will  file  with  the  Contractor  definite 
charges;  and,  upon  the  filing  of  such  charges,  the  Contractor  will 
discontinue  the  services  of  such  employee  in  connection  with  this 
work. 

The  Architect  will  issue  on  the  third  of  each  month  a  voucher 
calling  for  ninety  (90)  per  cent  of  the  value  of  labor  and  material 
incorporated  completely  in  place  in  the  building  on  the  first  of  the 
month,  which  voucher  will  be  honored  on  presentation  to  the  Owner; 
but  this  clause  will  not  require  the  Architect  to  include  in  the  voucher 
the  value  of  any  material  placed  in  the  building  which  in  his  opinion 
does  not  meet  the  contract  requirements. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  87 

The  Architect  will  be  the  interpreter  of  the  intent  and  meaning 
of  the  drawings  and  specification,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final  and 
binding  on  both  Owner  and  Contractor. 

Drawings  and  Specification.  The  drawings  and  specification 
are  to  be  considered  as  co-operative;  and  the  work  or  material  called 
for  by  one  and  not  indicated  or  mentioned  in  the  other,  is  to  be 
furnished  and  done  as  though  fully  treated  in  both. 

If  no  figures  or  memoranda  are  given,  drawings  are  to  be  accu- 
rately followed  according  to  scale;  but  wherever  there  are  figures  or 
memoranda,  these  are  to  be  followed  instead  of  the  scale,  if  there  is  a 
discrepancy. 

Detail  drawings  will  be  furnished  of  such  portions  of  the  work 
as  the  Architect  may  desire  to  explain  more  fully;  and  any  work 
constructed  without  such  drawings  (except  by  permission  expressly 
obtained),  or  not  in  accordance  with  them,  must  be  taken  down  and 
replaced  at  the  Contractor's  expense. 

No  changes  are  .to  be  made  without  written  order  signed  by  the 
Architect;  and  the  adjustment,  whether  allowance  or  extra  expense, 
is  to  be  made  at  that  time. 

Time  for  Completion.  Work  is  to  commence  at  once,  and  is  to 
proceed  with  promptness  and  despatch. 

Completion  of  work  and  delivery  of  building  to  Owner,  to  be 
six  months  after  date  of  contract.  Times  of  completion  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  to  be  as  follows,  the  time  allowed  in  each  case  to  be  from 
date  of  signing  contract. 

Foundation  ready  for  sill One  month. 

Frame  enclosed  and  chimney  completed Two  months. 

Outside  finish  on Three  months  and  fifteen  days. 

Plastering Four  months. 

Interior  woodwork Five  months  and  fifteen  days. 

Painter's  work  and  completion Six  months. 

( Month  and  day  to  be  inserted  in  contract  and  specification  for  each  perio J  men- 
tioned above.) 

EXCAVATION 

Note  to  Student. — For  this  part  of  the  work,  it  is  of  advantage  to 
draw  a  lot  plan.  This  should  show  the  system  of  drainage,  which,  if  not 
included  in  the  Architect's  drawings,  is  often  not  very  satisfactorily  studied 
or  understood.  This  part  of  the  work,  however,  often  depends  on  local 
conditions  or  customs  in  different  towns,  and  for  that  reason  is  not  made  a 
part  of  the  general  contract.  The  drainage  and  water  supply  are  often 


293 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


taken  care  of  by  the  city  or  town  authorities,  the  pipe  being  carried  either 
to  the  lot  line  or  to  the  outside  of  the  building  wall.  The  Architect  has  to 
ascertain  what  the  system  is,  and  to  write  his  specification  accordingly. 

A  datum*  line  (if  not  already  given)  should  be  established  by  the 
Engineer's  level,  at  the  sidewalk  curb.  This  should  be  obtained  for  use  in 
making  the  sketches  and  plans,  and  should  be  referred  to  frequently.  If 
the  first-floor  level  is  determined  in  the  studies  with  relation  to  this  datum 
line— fjT  "bench  mark,"  as  it  is  often  called — the  location  of  the  building 
will  be  much  more  easily  determined.  If  the  lot  plan  is  kept  separate  from 
the  drawings,  it  can  be  contoured  to  show  the  different  levels;  and  sections 
can  be  drawn  on  the  margin  to  show  the  slope  of  the  land.  This  plan  can 
also  be  used  for  locating  drainage  and  water  and  gas  supplies. 

The  parts  of  the  drawings  referring  to  the  excavator's  work  should  be 
as  carefully  studied  as  those  relating  to  any  other  part  of  the  building  opera- 
tions. If  possible,  borings  should  be  made  on  the  lot  before  commencing 
the  drawings,  so  that  the  character  of  the  soil  can  be  determined. 

A  few  dollars  spent  by  the  Owner  for  borings  on  the  lot  and  for  a  care- 
ful survey,  will  be  more  than  repaid  by  certainty  in  the  excavator's  estimate. 

Preparation  of  Site.  The  Contractor  will  stake  out  the  building, 
and  will  erect  permanent  batter-boards  at  such  points  that  they  will 
not  be  disturbed  during  the  construction  of  the  foundations. 

Clear  away  lot  for  building,  removing  soil  and  loam  from  site 
and  8  feet  additional  and  stacking  it  within  forty  feet  from  the 
building  where  it  may  be  used  for  final  grading.  Remove  rubbish, 
cut  down  and  remove  any  trees  marked  as  condemned  by  Owner  or 
Architect,  and  carefully  protect  all  trees  that  are  to  be  preserved. 

Excavation.  Excavate  for  all  work  covered  by  this  contract,  to 
at  least  one  foot  outside  the  cellar  wall  to  the  depth  shown,  and  no 
deeper.  This  includes  drains,  dry  wells  and  trenches,  as  well  as 
cellar.  Dry  well  for  refrigerator  waste  to  be  3  feet  in  diameter,  6 
feet  deep,  with  trench  to  same  5  feet  deep  and  8  feet  long. 

Trench  under  cellar  wall  to  slope  to  drain  cellar.  No  walls  or 
piers  to  start  less  than  4  feet  6  inches  below  surface  of  ground. 

Excavate  for  water  pipe,  gas,  fresh-air  ducts,  and  for  drain  and 
cesspool  about  40  feet  from  house.  Excavate  for  piazza  piers  and 
for  chimney  footings. 

*NOTE.— For  convenience  in  engineering  operations,  there  is  established  in  each 
locality  a  datum  line — that  is,  a  horizontal  line  passing  through  a  certain  fixed  point 
marked  zero  (0).  Levels  above  this  are  marked  thus,  "  +  15,"  "+20,"  etc.,  which 
means  that  these  particular  points  are  15  feet,  20  feet,  etc.,  above  the  fixed  point.  In 
coast  regions,  this  datum  line  is  often  fixed  at  low-water  mark. 

All  city  grades  are  figured  from  the  datum  line;  and  to  establish  such  a  line  at  a 
building  is  to  fix  a  level  at  the  required  number  of  feet  above  the  original.  Thus,  on 
the  seacoast,  the  levels  may  run  down  to  +10  or  +18;  while  in  Denver,  which  is  at  com- 
paratively high  altitude,  is  a  datum  line  or  bench  mark  +  one  mile  (or  +5.280  feet).  In 
such  localities  it  is  usual  to  drop  the  first  two  figures  and  call  the  bench  "+50.'  ' 


294 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  89 

After  mortar  of  foundation  walls  is  set  fill  with  stone  and  gravel 
to  within  18  inches  of  finished  grade;  and  after  first  floor  joists  are 
set,  complete  filling,  tamping  every  foot  in  height. 

Grade  to  level  shown  on  drawings,  so  as  to  turn  water  away  from 
building,  using  earth  and  top-soil  first  removed. 

Grade  at  completion  as  directed,  removing  loam  where  filling 
is  called  for,  and  covering  with  12  inches  of  loam  for  lawn,  and  18 
inches  depth  of  loam  for  shrub  plantation.  Paths  where  shown, 
excavated  12  inches  deep,  filled  with  gravel,  made  to  crown  2  inches. 
Sod,  2  feet  wide  on  border  of  path  and  lawn,  and  3  feet  next  to 
building.  Lawn  to  be  leveled,  raked  clear  of  stones,  and  sown 
with  best  approved  grass  seed.  To  be  properly  watered  and  cared 
for  until  completion  and  delivery  of  building.  Allow  one  hun- 
dred dollars  ($100.00)  for  shrubs  delivered,  and  plant  same. 

Lime,  Cement,  and  Sand.  All  lime  to  be  best  quality  Rockland 
or  its  equal,  freshly  burned;  and  all  cement  equal  to  first  quality 
Rosendale.  Brands  to  be  approved  by  Architect.  All  sand  to  be 
clean  and  sharp.  Portland  cement,  first  quality,  equal  to  Alpha. 

Mortar.    Except  where  otherwise  specified,  proportions  to  be: 

Lime  mortar — One  part  lime  to  three  parts  sand. 

Lime-Rosendale  cement  mortar,  or  "half -cement"  mortar — One 
part  Rosendale  cement,  1  part  lime,  5  parts  sand. 

Lime-Portland  cement  mortar — One  part  Portland  cement,  2 
parts  lime,  4  parts  sand. 

Rosendale  cement  mortar — One  part  Rosendale  cement  to  2  of 
sand. 

Portland  cement  mortar — One  part  Portland  cement  to  2  of  sand. 

STONE  WORK 

Walls.  Furnish  all  materials  and  build  walls  and  footings  as 
shown  on  drawings,  of  good  local  stone  in  irregular  courses,  the  first 
twelve  inches  to  be  laid  dry  in  the  trenches,  and  the  remainder  to  be 
laid  in  "half-cement"  mortar.  The  whole  to  be  laid  to  a  line  on 
outside  face,  well  bonded;  the  joints  to  be  thoroughly  filled  with 
mortar,  and  all  to  be  pointed  inside  and  outside  the  whole  height, 
holding  the  trowel  so  as  to  weather  the  pointing  on  the  outside. 

There  shall  be  at  least  one  through  bond-stone  to  every  ten 
square  feet  of  wall. 


295 


90  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Carefully  bevel  the  walls  to  receive  the  sills,  and  embed  in  mortar. 

Cellar  window-sills  to  have  wash  formed  with  Portland  cement 

Cement  Coating.  To  be  given  outside  of  wall  below  grade  on 
the  up-hill  side  of  building,  from  bottom  to  finished  grade,  of  mortar 
composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement  to  one  part  sand. 

Cut  out  joints  of  exterior  wall  where  exposed  above  grade  one- 
half  inch  deep,  and  point  neatly  with  Portland  cement  mortar. 

Drain  Pipe  and  Cesspool.  To  be  5-inch  best-glazed  earthen- 
ware drain-pipe,  furnished  and  laid  from  sewer  in  street  to  a  point 
5  feet  outside  cellar  wall,  joints  filled  with  Portland  cement.  Con- 
nection to  be  made  by  plumber. 

Construct  at  a  point  about  40  feet  from  house  two  cesspools  as 
shown — one  2  feet  8  inches  in  diameter  and  8  feet  deep,  with  8-incb 
brick  walls  thoroughly  cemented  inside  and  made  water-tight. 

Also,  6  feet  from  same,  a  leaching  cesspool  4  feet  in  diameter  and 
8  feet  deep,  made  of  loose  stone,  laid  dry. 

From  iron  pipe  outside  of  building,  connect  house  with  cesspool 
by  4-inch  Portland  stoneware  pipe.  Also  connect  the  two  cesspools 
with  Portland  stoneware  pipe  as  shown. 

Cemented  cesspool  to  have  tight  iron  cover.  Leaching  cess- 
pool to  have  a  ventilated  iron  cover. 

Four-inch  glazed  earthenware  pipe. to  be  furnished  and  laid  from 
dry  wells  to  one  foot  above  ground,  for  conductor  drains  and  set  iron 
pipe  furnished  by  plumber  to  receive  conductors. 

Cellar  Floor  (concrete).  To  be  laid  in  basement.  Level  off 
with  coarse  gravel;  settle  thoroughly;  and  put  down  3  inches  con- 
crete, composed,  to  the  thickness  of  2  inches,  of  1  part  Portland  cement, 
2  parts  sand,  and  3  parts  clean,  coarse,  sharp  gravel,  well  tamped; 
cover  with  1-inch  coat  composed  of  1  part  Portland  cement  and  2 
parts  sand,  finished  to  true  and  even  surface  so  that  cellar  will  drain 
dry. 

BRICKWORK 

Brickwork — Except  as  otherwise  specified,  to  be  laid  of  hard- 
burned  common  brick,  carefully  selected  for  exposed  work  such  as 
facing  of  chimneys  above  roof;  all  to  be  new,  well  shaped,  and  of 
uniform  size.  Brick  to  be  laid  wet  in  warm,  dry  weather,  and  dry 


206 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  91 


in  damp  or  freezing  weather.  All  mortar  to  be  Lime  Rosendale. 
Joints  to  be  thoroughly  flushed  with  mortar  and  well  pointed.  All 
outside  exposed  work  to  be  washed  down  after  completion. 

Chimneys.  The  chimneys  are  to  be  laid  in  Portland  cement 
mortar.  Build  in  lead  counterflashing,  at  least  2  inches  into  the 
mortar  joint,  and  turn  down  over  the  roof  flashing. 

Plaster  the  exterior  of  all  chimneys  where  not  exposed. 

The  chimney  caps  are  to  be  of  2-inch  blue  stone,  using  only  one 
piece  to  each  chimney;  the  flue-holes  cut  through,  to  be  one-half 
inch  smaller  each  way  than  the  flue  below. 

All  flues  are  to  be  lined  with  hard-burned  terra-cotta  one 
inch  thick,  set  with  very  close  joints  filled  with  Portland  cement 
mortar. 

Terra-cotta  round  thimbles  are  to  be  set  for  all  smoke  inlets; 
and  in  the  ventilation  flue,  a  square  opening  for  registers  is  to  be 
formed  with  square,  smooth  brick. 

Chimney  bars,  to  support  flat  arches,  two  2-inch  by  ^-inch 
wrought  iron,  are  to  be  placed  above  each  fireplace,  8  inches  longer 
than  opening. 

Provide  and  build  into  bottom  of  each  chimney  one  8-inch  by  10- 
inch  cast-iron  door  and  frame. 

Trimmer  arches  to  be  turned  for  hearths  on  center  of  fireplace, 
to  be  2  feet  wide  and  of  length  equal  to  hearths.  Level  up  with  cement 
to  receive  hearth. 

Run  4-inch  by  8-inch  ash-flues  from  first-story  fireplaces  to  ash- 
pit. 

Finished  fireplaces  to  be  formed  as  shown  ii>  detail  drawings — 
face,  back,  and  fire-bed  of  l^-inch  Philadelphia  brick,  with  hearths 
of  red,  unglazed  kitchen  tile,  or  same  as  face,  to  have  two  2-inch  by 
£-inch  bars,  castriron  throat,  patent  damper  and  slide,  and  ash- 
du'np.  After  completion,  each  fireplace  is  to  be  kept  protected. 
Samples  of  brick  and  tile  are  to  be  submitted  for  approval. 

Plastering. — Lathing.  Lath  all  walls,  ceilings,  and  partitions 
(except  behind  sheathing  in  kitchen,  but  including  all  space  behind 
all  other  sheathing  and  wainscots) ;  also  all  furring,  studding,  soffits, 
and  under-side  of  stairs  throughout  first,  second,  and  third  stories, 
laundry,  head  of  stairs  to  basement,  and  cellar  ceiling  (but  not  where 


297 


92  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

marked  "unfinished"  on  the  plans),  with  good  spruce  laths,  set 
three-eighths  inch  apart  and  nailed  with  four  nailings  to  a  lath. 
Break  joints  every  sixth  course,  and  over  all  door  and  window  open- 
ings. All  laths  to  be  put  on  horizontally.  Metal  lath  over  heater 
in  basement. 

Two-coat  Work.     Planter  all  above-mentioned  lathing  two  coats. 

The  tough  coat  shall  be  best,  thoroughly  slaked,  pure  Eastern 
lime;  clean  sharp  sand;  and  best,  long  cattle  or  goat's  hair,  mixed 
in  the  proportion  of  2-V  bushels  hair  to  1  cask  lime  and  3  barrels  sand, 
to  be  thoroughly  worked  and  stacked  outside  of  building  at  least 
ten  days  before  using.  Carry  first  coat  to  rough  floor.  All  to  be  well 
troweled  and  straightened  up  with  a  straight  edge. 

The  skim  coat  shall  be  sand  finish,  of  white,  well  washed  sand, 
3  parts  sand  to  1  part  white  lime  putty,  floated  up  with  cork  floats, 
left  medium  rough;  sample  to  be  approved  uy  Architect. 

Whitewash.  Whitewash  all  brick  or  stone  work,  etc.,  in  base- 
ment, two  coats,  using  good  lime  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

Metal  corner  beads  (of  approved  make)  to  be  furnished  and  set 
by  plasterer  throughout  first  floor,  main  house. 

Cornices.  Cornices  to  be  run  in  rooms  listed  below,  as  per 
detail  drawings. 

Living  room, 
Parlor, 

Dining  room, 
Hall. 

Metal  Work. — Flashings.  Wherever  roofs  come  in  contact 
with  vertical  surfaces  5-lb.  lead  flashings,  9  inches  by  9  inches,  are 
to  be  built  into  each  shingle  joint  and  turned  up  onto  the  vertical 
surface  at  least  five  inches.  Over  these  flashings,  counter-flashings 
are  to  be  placed,  built  into  the  brickwork  as  above  specified;  or, 
where  the  vertical  surfaces  are  of  shingle  or  siding,  they  are  to  ex- 
tend under  such  surfaces  at  least  6  inches. 

All  valleys  are  to  be  lined  with  5-lb.  lead  extending  6  inches 
under  shingles  at  each  side. 

Eave-Trough  and  Conductors.  The  eave-troughs  and  con- 
ductors are  to  be  of  No.  26  galvanized  iron,  the  conductors  to  be 
crimped  3  by  4  inches  and  connected  six  feet  above  ground  to  the  4- 
inch  soil  pipe  to  drain. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  93 

All  work  in  connection  with  the  eave-troughs  and  conductors  is 
to  be  riveted  when  possible,  and  all  joints  soldered;  and  the  expan- 
s'on  and  contrac  ion  from  changes  in  temperature  are  to  be  guarded 
against  by  expansion  joints  or  loose  ends. 

.  CARPENTER  WORK 

Framing.  The  building  is  to  be  ful  -frame,  all  framed,  braced, 
spiked,  and  pinned  in  the  best  and  strongest  manner,  perfectly  true 
and  plumb.  Filling-in  studs  will  be  nailed,  and  door  and  window 
caps  cut  into  studs.  No  woodwork  shall  come  within  one  inch  of  a 
chimney;  and  framing  must  be  arranged  to  avoid  cutting  for  pipes, 
chimney,  etc.  Truss  all  openings  over  three  feet  wide. 

Timber,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  to  be  of  spruce. 
All  timber  throughout  the  building  to  be  full  and  square  to  the  di- 
mensions indicated,  well  seasoned,  and  free  from  large  or  loose  knots, 
sap,  shakes,  or  other  imperfections  impairing  durability  or  strength. 

Dimensions  to  be  as  follows: — 

Sills,  6  by  8  inches. 

Girders,  8  by  10  inches. 

Posts,  4  by  8  inches. 

Girts,  4  by  8  inches. 

Ledger  boards  (used  only  in  subordinate  framing),    1  by  6-inch  hard 

pine. 

Braces,  3  by  4  inches  long. 

Studding,  2  by  4  inches,  16  inches  on  centers.     .-. 
Door  and  window  studs,  double,  2  by  4  inches. 
Door  and  window  heads  3  by  4  inches. 
Partition  caps,  2  by  4  inches,  hard  pine. 
Partition  soles,  2  by  4  inches. 
Joists,  first  and  second  floors,  2  by  10  inches;    attic,  2  by  8  inches 

— 16  inches  on  centers. 

Plate,  2  by  4  inches,  double,  breaking  joints. 
Rafters,  2  by  8  inches,  20  inches  on  centers. 
Valley  rafters,  3  by  10  inches. 
Ridges,  2  by  8  inches. 
Piazza  and  porch  girders,  4  by  8  inches. 
Piazza  and  porch  sills,  4  by  8  inches. 
Piazza  and  porch  floor  beams,  2  by  8  inches,  20  inches  on  centers. 

Halve  (or  frame  and  pin)  sills  at  angles.  Frame  corner  posts 
and  door  and  window  studs  to  sill  and  girt.  Floor  beams  to  be 
notched  down  on  sill,  and  gained  in. 


94  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Double  joists  under  all  partitions  not  over  partitions  below 
runiiing  parallel  with  the  joists,  where  supports  to  span  are  10  feet 
or  less;  under  all  other,  triple  the  joists. 

All  headers  and  trimmers  8  feet  long  or  less  are  to  be  doubled; 
all  longer,  tripled. 

Bridge  all  floors  every  eight  feet  with  1  by  3-inch  pieces  cut 
diagonally  and  double-nailed  at  each  end. 

All  studs  are  to  be  2  by  4  inches,  16  inches  on  centers,  straight 
and  plumb.  Partitions  directly  over  walls  and  girders  in  cellar,  or 
with  partition  caps  below,  are  to  run  down  to  rest  on  them.  Strongly 
truss  all  partitions  not  supported  from  below.  Spike  studs  at  corners. 
Line  sliding-door  pockets  with  ^-inch  matched  sheathing. 

Piazza  joists  to  pitch  1  inch  in  5  feet  away  from  house. 

Main  Roof.  To  be  framed  in  the  strongest  manner,  with  valley 
rafters  carried  to  ridge  or  hips.  All  hips  and  ridges  to  be  main- 
tained perfectly  straight.  Rafters  to  be  notched  over  the  plate,  and 
spiked.  Double  the  rafters  at  each  side  of  dormer  openings;  4  by 
8  inch  header,  8  feet  above  top  floor.  Partitions  to  be  carried  up 
to  support  roof  wherever  practicable.  All  to  be  thoroughly  tied,  and 
made  perfectly  secure  and  strong.  Collar  beams,  2  by  6  inches, 
8  feet  2  inches  above  attic  floor. 

Dormers  to  be  framed  with  4  by  4-inch  corner  posts,  2  by  4-inch 
studding  and  plate,  and  2  by  6-inch  rafters.  Studding  to  be  notched 
1  inch  on  rafters  and  extend  to  the  floor. 

Boarding.  Cover  all  roofs  and  frame  walls  with  good,  sound 
spruce  boards  not  over  10  inches  wide;  roof  square-edged;  walls 
matched  and  laid  diagonally.  Cover  walls  with  "Neponset"  black 
sheathing  paper,  or  its  equal. 

Shingles.  Cover  all  roofs  with  "Extra"  sawed  cedar  shingles, 
laid  5  inches  to  the  weather,  with  two  nails  to  each  shingle.  Double- 
shingle  all  hips.  Ridge  to  be  finished  with  6  by  f -inch  saddle  boards. 

Walls.  Cover  all  walls  with  "clear"  sawed  cedar  shingles,  5^ 
inches  to  the  weather. 

Exterior  Finish.  Exterior  finish  not  otherwise  specified,  to  be 
worked  from  good  cypress,  clear  of  sap,  shakes,  and  large  or  black 
knots,  following  elevation  and  detail  drawings;  and  to  be  put  up 
in  a  skilful  manner,  with  close  joints  and  with  nails  sunk  for  puttying. 
Joints  exposed  to  the  weather,  to  be  matched  and  painted  with  thick 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  95 

white  lead  before  putting  the  pieces  together.  The  painter  to  prime 
finish  before  or  immediately  after  putting  up. 

Main  Cornices.  To  be  according  to  detail  drawings,  with  5  by 
7-inch  cypress  gutter,  fascia,  planceer,  rebated  1^-inch  belt  above 
clapboards,  mouldings,  dentil  course,  and  brackets. 

Cellar  Hatchway.  To  have  2-inch  plank  treads  on  2-inch 
carriages,  16  inches  on  centers;  2-inch  plank  sills,  and  trap-door 
frame,  bolted  to  masonry.  Case  with  f-inch  cypress,  and  make  doors 
of  narrow  cypress,  the  doors  to  be  well  cleated.  Make  water-tight. 
To  have  heavy  strap  hinges  and  proper  fastening.  Single  door  at 
foot  of  stairs. 

Porch  and  Piazza  Floors.  To  be  laid  with  f-inch  by  3-inch 
Georgia  pine  dressed  one  side,  upper  edge  eased  off;  laid  £  inch 
apart,  nailed  with  8-penny  nails.  Finish  with  rounded  nosing  and 
f-inch  by  1-inch  mouldings.  Floors  to  pitch  to  throw  off  water. 

Outside  Steps.  To  be  constructed  with  2  by  10-inch  plank 
carriages,  16  inches  on  centers. 

Treads  of  outside  steps  to  be  of  f-inch  by  4-inch  hard  pine 
strips,  with  rounded  nosings  and  coving  under,  returned  at  the 
ends.  Risers  f-inch  thick. 

Ceiling  of  covered  porch  and  piazza  to  be  of  f-inch  by  2^-inch 
tongued,  grooved,  and  beaded  North  Carolina  pine. 

Columns.  To  be  built  up  of  white  pine,  with  turned  shafts  of 
diameter  as  shown  for  lower  third  and  diminishing  slightly  above, 
with  moulded  caps  and  moulded  bases. 

Balustrade.  At  floor  and  at  roof  of  porch  and  side  piazza, 
and  over  dining-room  bay,  to  be  of  2J-inch  stock,  2  inches  apart, 
turned. 

Posts.  Posts  on  porch  and  piazza  roofs  are  to  be  built  up 
with  turned  fmials,  and  supported  by  pieces  running  up  from  plate 
or  sill  inside  of  posts. 

Top  rail  to  be  built  up  and  moulded;  lower  rail,  2  by  3  inches, 
solid,  beveled. 

Window-Frames  and  Scuttle.  Plank  frames  in  stonework  in 
basement,  except  where  shown  double-hung,  are  to  be  of  If  by 
6-inch  pine,  with  f  by  If -inch  moulded  staff  bead,  and  2f-inch  sill. 
Frames  to  be  rebated  on  the  outer  edge  for  screens.  Sash  to  be  hung 
at  the  top,  to  swing  in. 


301 


96  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

All  windows  shown  with  meeting  rail,  or  unless  otherwise 
specified,  to  have  pine  frames  made  for  double-hung  sashes,  with 
f-inch  hard  pine  pulley  stiles,  tongued  into  outside  casings,  beads, 
f-inch  ground  casings,  If -inch  yokes,  2f-inch  sills  to  pitch  1^  inches, 
f-inch  by  5-inch  outside  casing  over  boarding,  with  If  by  2|-inch 
back  band  window  caps  as  shown.  To  have  2-inch  bronze-faced 
axle  pulleys. 

Scuttle.  To  be  2  feet  by  2  feet,  with  plank  frame  6  inches  high. 
Heavy  strap  hinges,  and  fixtures  to  hold  cover  at  any  angle.  Frame 
and  cover  to  be  tinned. 

Door-Frames  and  Doors. — Outside  Door-Frames.  To  be  made 
from  clear  pine  stock,  If  inches  thick,  rebated  and  beaded  on  inner 
edge,  and  with  If -inch  hard  pine  thresholds.  Casing  of  outside 
door-frames  to  correspond  with  windows. 

Inside  Door  Frames.  All  inside  swinging  doors  to  have  If- 
inch  double-rebated  and  beaded  frames  of  pine  or  whitewood  to 
match  adjacent  finish.  Veneer  for  other  woods  with  J-inch  veneer 
on  IJ-inch  pine. 

Sash.  Sash  to  be  of  white  pine,  unless  otherwise  specified.  In 
first  story  If  inches  thick ;  in  second  and  third  stories,  and  all  of  ell, 
to  be  1  ^-inches  thick;  in  cellar,  1|  inches  thick.  Large  one-light 
sash  to  have  1^-inch  meeting  rails.  Sash  not  to  be  stained. 

Doors.  Doors,  except  stock  doors,  to  be  paneled  and  moulded 
according  to  scale  and  detail  drawings.  All  panels  to  be  loose  and 
not  glued  or  nailed.  Tenons  to  have  f-inch  haunches.  Outside 
veneered  doors  to  be  2^  inches  thick;  doors  3  feet  wide  and  over, 
to  be  2  inches  thick;  all  others,  If  inches. 

Front  and  Rear  Hall  Doors.  Are  to  be  2\  inches  thick,  of 
white  pine,  veneered  inside  to  match  vestibule,  lower  panels  raised, 
upper  panel  glazed  with  polished  plate  glass. 

Other  Outside  Doors.  To  be  If -inch  pine  stock  sash  doors, 
as  shown,  with  wood  muntins,  glazed  with  double-thick  glass. 

Sliding  Doors.  To  have  astragal  joint  at  center,  and  f-inch 
by  l|-inch  friction  mould  all  around;  to  slide  on  Richards  or  other 
approved  patent  hangers,  on  birch  track. 

Dwarf  doors  for  wardrobes,  cupboards,  pantry,  etc.,  to  be  solid 
paneled,  If  inches  thick. 

Build  cellar  door  of  f-inch  stock. 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  97 


Doors  not  veneered,  to  be  of  solid  pine,  whitewood,  cypress, 
or  birch,  to  match  room. 

Doors  in  rooms  having  hardwood  finish,  to  have  thoroughly 
kiln-dried,  white  pine  core,  with  solid  mouldings  and  f-inch  veneer- 
ing of  kiln-dried  wood  f-inch  on  edges,  well  glued  on  both  sides 
to  match  hardwood  finish  of  rooms.  If  one  of  two  adjacent  rooms  is 
to  be  painted,  veneer  door  with  hardwood  of  other  room,  on  both  sides. 

All  panels  over  15  inches  wide  to  be  glued  up. 

Stock  Doors.  To  be  If  inches  thick,  stock  sizes,  with  plain 
panels  and  flush  mouldings  on  both  sides,  4  panels.  Architect  to 
approve  sample  showing  quality  and  arrangement  of  panels. 

Blinds.  Blinds  are  to  be  hung  for  all  windows.  They  are  to 
be  of  cypress  or  of  white  pine,  1£  inches  thick.  Mark  each  blind 
to  correspond  with  mark  on  window-opening. 

Screens.  To  be  furnished  and  set,  for  all  outside  doors  and 
windows  that  open;  made  from  best,  clear,  thoroughly  seasoned 
white  pine,  f-inch  thick,  to  be  stained  and  varnished  three  coats. 
Screens  are  to  be  fitted  with  lifts,  springs,  and  runs,  so  that  they 
can  be  used  for  either  upper  or  lower  half  of  sash,  with  adjustable  run. 

Wood  frames  to  be  covered  with  14-mesh  best  approved  gal- 
vanized wire,  using  heavy  13-mesh  for  doors  and  cellar  windows. 

Grounds  and  Furring.  Furr  ceilings  and  rafters  in  finished 
portion  of  attic  with  1  by  2-inch  spruce  furring  strips,  12  inches 
on  centers,  nailed  to  every  beam ;  and  furr  out  in  finished  attic  rooms 
for  3-foot  6-inch  walls,  also  for  plastering  next  basement  walls, 
with  2  by  4-inch. studding  set  flat. 

Put  grounds  for  f-inch  plastering  around  all  door  and  window 
openings  where  there  is  no  ground  casing;  and  for  base,  wainscot, 
wood  cornice,  etc.,  as  directed.  Two  grounds  behind  base. 

Put  corner  beads  on  all  projecting  angles;  secure  well;  set 
true  and  plumb. 

Under-Floocs.  Lay  under-floors,  except  in  basement,  of  good, 
square-edged  spruce  boards,  surfaced  on  one  side  to  even  thick- 
ness, and  nailed  to  every  bearing  with  two  8-penny  nails.  Er.d 
joints  to  be  cut  over  beam  in  every  case. 

Sheathing  Paper.  Lay  two  thicknesses  of  approved  sheathing 
paper  between  the  under  and  the  finished  floors. 


303 


98  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Interior  Finish.-- Material,  Etc.  All  stock  to  be  best  quality, 
unless  otherwise  specified,  free  from  knots  or  sap,  thoroughly  sea- 
soned or  kiln-dried.  All  to  be  smoothed,  scraped,  and  sandpapered 
by  hand  before  putting  up  and  at  completion;  such  work  as  is  to 
have  a  natural  finish,  to  be  properly  cleaned.  No  interior  finish  to 
be  taken  into  building  until  plastering  is  dry. 

Priming  back  of  Finish.  Standing  finish  to  be  given  a  prim- 
ing coat  on  back  by  Contractor  furnishing  interior  finish  before  it 
leaves  the  shop. 

Curved  Finish.  Is  to  be  sprung  on  or  worked  from  large  stock, 
so  that  no  kerf  marks  can  be  seen. 

Main  House  Finish.  All  finish  on  main  part  of  house,  except 
inside  of  closets,  to  be  moulded. 

Service  Finish.  All  parts  of  the  building  devoted  to  service 
and  inside  of  closets,  to  have  flat  finish. 

Wainscot  Sheathing.  Four  feet. high,  North  Carolina  pine,  to 
be  set  in  back  entry,  kitchen,  and  bathroom,  matched  and  beaded 
like  approved  sample,  |  inch  by  2^  inches,  with  1^-inch  rebated  cap 
and  no  base. 

Paneled  Wainscot.  To  be  3  feet  high,  paneled  as  shown,  with 
raised  panels.  To  have  6-inch  base,  moulded  cap,  f-inch  rails 
and  stiles,  loose  panels. 

SCHEDULE: — To  be  used  in  dining  room. 

Birch.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  all  birch  to  be  best  selected 
Srst  quality,  red  birch,  of  even  color.  f 

SCHEDULE: — To  be  used  in  dining  room. 

Oak.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  all  oak  to  be  best  selected 
thoroughly  seasoned  American  quartered  white  oak,  to  show  good 
grain,  and  to  be  free  from  shakes,  knots,  stains,  or  any  other  imper- 
fections. 

North  Carolina  Hard  Pine.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  to  be 
selected  first  quality. 

SCHEDULE: — To  be  used  as  follows: 

Back  Entry. 
Kitchen. 
Pantry. 
China  Closet. 
Bathroom. 


304 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  99 

s 

Picture  Moulding.  Of  same  wood  as  finish,  around  principal 
rooms  of  first  story,  1J  by  1\  inches;  around  all  chambers,  second 
story,  main  house,  f  inch  by  f  inch.  Unless  otherwise  directed, 
to  be  1  foot  6  inches  below  ceiling;  and  where  there  is  a  cornice, 
\  inch  below  cornice.  Picture  moulding  to  be  finished  by  painter, 
except  last  coat,  before  putting  up. 

Closets.  To  have  high  shelf  and  strips  all  around,  for  clothes 
hooks.  Unless  otherwise  directed,  shelf  to  be  f  inch  by  14  inches, 
5  feet  10  inches  above  floor,  with  hook  rows  at  4  feet  6  inches  and 
5  feet  6  inches  above  floor. 

Linen  Closet.  To  have  counter  shelf,  with  four  drawers  below, 
and  with  shelves  above,  16  inches  apart,  extending  to  ceiling;  these 
to  be  fitted  with  doors  hinged  at  bottom  to  drop  down. 

China  Closet.  To  have  counter  shelf  2  feet  8  inches  above 
floor;  paneled,  hinged  doors  and  8  drawers,  one  drawer  subdivided, 
under;  hinged,  glazed  doors  and  5  shelves,  over.  Frame  for  sink. 
High  closet  over  sink,  to  have  glazed  doors  and  3  shelves.  To  have 
8  inches  clear  space  over  counter  shelf. 

Pantry.  To  have  counter  shelf  as  shown  2  feet  8  inches  high, 
with  four  f-inch  by  14-inch  shelves  above,  and  4  drawers  below,  one 
drawer  being  divided  for  knives,  etc. ;  space  for  2  flour-bins  with  doors ; 
remainder  of  space  to  have  shelving  enclosed  by  sheathed  doors. 
All  this  to  be  of  clear  white  pine  or  whitewood,  for  natural  finish. 

Broom  Rack.  To  be  put  up  in  broom  closet  or  in  cellar  stair- 
way; to  have  cast-iron  holders  for  sweeping  and  whisk  brooms, 
dustpan,  fire  bucket,  etc.,  to  be  included  in  hardware. 

Tank  in  Attic.  To  be  built  of  2-inch  plank,  tongued  and 
grooved,  fastened  together  with  iron  rods  and  nuts,  to  be  well  cleated. 
To  be  4  feet  by  4  feet  by  2  feet. 

Plumbing  Strips.  To  be  put  up  to  support  pipe  where  re- 
quired by  plumber.  Water-closet  seats  and  tanks,  except  in  attic, 
to  be  furnished  by  plumber. 

Mantels.  Allow  a  total  sum  of  $125.00  for  wood  mantels 
delivered  at  house,  to  be  selected  by  Owner,  set  by  carpenter,  and 
finished  by  painter. 

Finish  Floors.  Upper  floor  is  not  to  be  laid  where  there  are 
double  floors,  until  standing  finish  is  all  in  place.  All  lining  floors 
to  be  thoroughly  repaired  and  cleaned  before  finish  floor  is  laid. 


100  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Oak  Floors.  To  be  in  first  floor  of  main  house,  except  in 
kitchen,  of  matched  quartered-oak  flooring,  f  inch  by  2J  inches, 
clear,  thoroughly  seasoned,  and  kiln-dried,  blind-nailed  to  every 
bearing  with  8-penny  nails,  laid  over  rough  floor,  to  be  planed  off, 
scraped,  and  sandpapered  ready  for  finishing.  Protect  properly. 

Hard  Pine  Floors.  Hard  pine  floors,  in  kitchen,  pantries,  and 
bathroom,  to  be  of  f-inch  by  2^-inch  matched-rift  Georgia  pine. 

Hardware.  To  cost  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  ($150.00)  for 
all  trimmings  of  doors  and  windows,  and  fittings  in  china  closet 
and  pantry,  closets,  drawers,  etc.,  allowance  to  cover  net  cost  to 
Contractor;  Architect  or  Owner  to  select  hardware  where  he. chooses; 
and  Owner  to  have  benefit  of  any  deduction  from  allowance.  Car- 
penter to  furnish  correct  list  of  hardware,  and  to  put  it  on  carefully 
and  in  workmanlike  manner. 

Painting. — Samples.  Samples  of  all  colors  to  be  submitted 
for  Architect's  approval. 

Knots  and  Defects.  Sap,  pitch,  knots,  and  similar  defects,  to 
be  covered  with  good-quality  shellac. 

Number  of  Coats.  Unless  expressly  so  indicated,  priming  and 
shellacing  is  not  to  count  as  a  coat  in  this  specification. 

Exterior  Finish.  All  dressed  exterior  finish,  blinds,  and  sash, 
to  be  painted  two  coats,  after  priming,  of  white  lead  and  linseed  oil 

Hard  Pine.  Pulley  stiles  and  floors,  and  steps  of  porches,  to 
receive  two  coats  oil,  well  rubbed  in. 

Following  is  a  general  memorandum  of  exterior  painting.  This 
is  to  be  compared  with  plans,  and  all  work  is  to  be  left  with  painter's 
finish  complete. 

SCHEDULE:  — 

Finish,  2  coats  paint  after  priming. 
Porch  Floors,  2  coats  oil. 
Blinds,  3  coats. 
Metal,'  3  coats. 
Shingles,  natural. 

Inside  Finish.  Except  where  otherwise  specified,  all  inside 
finish  is  to  be  well  filled,  and  is  to  have  one  coat  stain  and  shellac 
and  two  coats  of  dead  hard  oil  finish.  All  work  about  kitchen  and 
bathrooms  to  have  two  coats  of  hard  oil  with  high  gloss. 

Ivory  White.  Where  indicated,  give  one  coat  shellac,  then  3 
coats  lead  and  oil  paint,  sandpapering  each  coat;  then  2  coats  white 


300 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  101 

lead,  zinc,  and  white  varnish,  rubbing  down  with  pumice-stone  and 
oil;  sample  and  tint  to  be  approved. 

Whitewood  Finish.  Whitewood  and  other  finish,  unless  other- 
wise specified,  to  have  three  good  coats  lead  and  oil.  Color  as 
approved;  last  coat  to  have  suitable  proportion  of  zinc,  and  to  be 
left  with  flat  or  oil  finish. 

Hardwood.  Treat  hardwood  finish  according  to  best  methods 
with  potash;  give  coat  of  oil  or  paste  filler;  clean  off;  give  4  coats 
of  white  shellac,  sandpapering  after  each  coat  except  last,  which 
is  to  be  rubbed  to  dull  finish  with  pumice-stone  and  oil. 

Enamel  White.  Give  one  coat  shellac;  then  4  coats  lead  and 
oil  paint,  sandpapering  each  coat;  then  2  coats  white  varnish,  rubbed 
each  with  pumice-stone  and  oil,  sample  to  be  approved. 

Standing  Hard-Pine  Finish.  Standing  hard-pine  finish  to 
be  given  one  coat  approved  primer  and  filler,  sandpapered;  one 
coat  approved  inside  spar  varnish,  rubbed  down;  and  one  coat 
approved  inside  spar  varnish,  flowed  on. 

SCHEDULE: — Kitchen,  pantry,  serving  room,  bathroom. 

Bathtub.  Bathtub  to  be  painted  outside,  four  coats;  last  coat 
to  be  an  enamel  gloss  coat. 

Exposed  Piping.  All  piping  that  shows,  to  be  given  one  coat 
of  white  shellac. 

Plaster  Watts  and  Ceilings.  Plaster  walls,  but  not  ceilings, 
in  kitchen,  pantry,  and  china  closet  and  throughout  bathroom,  to 
be  painted  1  coat  sizing  and  3  coats  paint,  last  coat  to  contain  varnish 
to  leave  gloss.  All  ceilings  to  be  sized  and  tinted. 

Glazing. — Plate  Glass.  Furnish  and  set  J-inch  American  pol- 
ished plate  glass  for  large  lights  in  main  house. 

Double-Thick  Glass.  Glass  not  otherwise  specified,  to  be 
first-quality  double-thick  German  or  American  glass. 

At  completion,  all  glass  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  oil, 
putty,  paint,  mortar,  and  plaster,  and  to  be  left  whole. 

Heating. — Furnace.  Provide  and  set  up  complete,  where 
jfaown  on  plans,  a  hot-air  furnace  of  approved  make,  to  be  of  cast 
iron,  with  stated  and  sufficient  area  of  grate  and  heating  capacity 
to  keep  building  at  70°  temperature,  Fahrenheit,  when  thermometer 
is  at  zero  outside. 


807 


102  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Smoke  Pipe.  To  be  9-inch  black  iron  pipe,  fitted  with  close- 
fitting  damper,  also  check-damper  and  proper  cleanouts. 

Tinwork.  Furnish  and  set  warm-air  pipes  and  register  boxes, 
to  be  of  bright  IX  tinplate.  Mark  each  pipe  with  the  name  of 
room  it  supplies.  Cover  risers  with  metal  lath  in  partitions  before 
plastering. 

Dampers,  Etc.  Dampers  for  warm -air  pipes,  netting  for  register 
boxes,  tin  collars,  casings,  lining  tin  for  protection  from  fire,  to  be 
supplied  and  set  by  Contractor. 

The  cold-air  box  is  to  be  No.  24  galvanized  iron,  with  all  joints 
riveted  tight,  and  with  such  bracing  as  will  effectually  prevent  the 
sagging  of  the  top.  It  is  to  be  fitted  to  the  cold-air  inlet  and  at  delivery 
inlet,  and  is  to  have  a  balanced,  close-fitting  damper  which,  when 
open,  will  give  full  passageway  for  air. 

Registers.  Furnish  registers  and  connect  to  pipes,  with  valves 
in  each.  Registers  to  be  of  black-Japanned  cast  iron,  with  tin 
boxes  and  borders.  In  library,  register  is  to  be  bronze;  and  in  re- 
ception room,  of  white  enamel,  approved  quality  and  design. 

SCHEDULE  : — Registers  are  to  be  laid  out  according  to  an  approved 
schedule  submitted  by  each  bidder,  showing  size,  finish,  etc.,  for  each 
room,  with  size  of  supply  pipe.  Locations  are  to  be  as  shown  on  lans 
or  as  approved  in  building,  before  proceeding  with  work. 

Plumbing. — Materials,  Connections,  Etc.  All  drain,  soil,  waste, 
and  vent  pipes,  and  all  fittings,  are  to  be  extra-heavy  plain  cast  iron, 
painted  outside  2  coats  red  lead. 

Joints.  All  joints  in  cast-iron  pipe  are  to  be  made  tight  with 
oakum  and  lead,  well  calked. 

Lead  Pipes.  All  lead,  waste,  and  vent  pipe  branches  are  to  be 
of  best-quality  drawn  lead,  of  the  following  weights  per  foot: 

1^-inch 3  Ibs. 

2  -inch 4  Ibs. 

3  -inch 6  Ibs. 

4  -inch 8  Ibs. 

Connections  of  Lead  and  Iron  Pipes.  All  connections  of  lead 
and  iron  pipes  are  to  be  made  by  heavy  brass  ferrules,  same  size  as 
lead,  calked  with  lead. 

Joints  between  ferrules  and  lead  pipes,  to  be  wiped. 

AH  lead  pipe  joints  to  be  wiped. 


9Q9 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  103 

Supports.  All  vertical  lines  of  soil  and  waste  pipes,  if  not 
carried  to  drain  below  cellar  floor,  are  to  rest  on  brick  piers  at  their 
base. 

All  vertical  lines  of  iron  pipe  are  to  be  held  in  place  by  pipe 
hangers  or  wrought-iron  clamps,  placed  5  feet  .apart.  In  horizontal 
lines,  they  must  be  not  more  than  10  feet  apart. 

All  lead  pipes  are  to  be  secured  in  place  with  metal  tacks  or 
brass  clamps,  placed  3  feet  apart;  and  horizontal  pipes  are  to  be 
supported  their  entire  length  by  carrying  strips. 

All  brass  pipe  to  be  secure  by  brass  pipe  holders  approved  by  the 
Architect. 

Miscellaneous.  All  horizontal  drain  and  waste  pipes  are  to  have 
a  fall  of  not  less  than  J  inch  to  the  foot. 

All  changes  in  direction  must  be  made  with  Y  (45°),  £  (22£°),  or 
1*8  (lli°)  branches. 

All  connections  with  horizontal  pipes  must  be  made  by  Y 
branches.  TYs  (sometimes  called  "Sanitary  Ts")  may  be  used  on 
vertical  pipes. 

All  exposed  brass-work  to  be  nickel-plated,  except  in  basement 
and  kitchen,  where  it  is  to  be  polished. 

Cleanouts.  Set  Ys  with  extra-heavy  brass  screw-caps  at  each 
bend  in  horizontal  lines,  and  15  feet  apart  in  straight  lines;  also 
cleanouts  at  ends  of  all  horizontal  lines. 

All  cleanouts  to  be  same  diameter  as  pipes  with  which  they 
are  connected. 

Traps  and  Vents.  Every  fixture  must  be  separately  trapped. 
No  traps  are  to  be  less  than  1%  inches  in  diameter.  Each  set  of  trays 
to  have  one  trap. 

All  traps  must  be  vented — 4-inch  traps  by  2-inch  branches; 
2  inch  and  1^-inch  traps,  by  1^-inch  branches. 

Roof  Flashings.  All  joints  between  roof  and  iron  pipe  must  be 
made  tight  with  6-pound  lead  or  16-ounce  copper  flashings. 

Tests.  The  water  test  must  be  applied  to  the  entire  system 
of  piping,  in  the  Architect's  presence  and  to  his  satisfaction.  All 
pipes  and  connections  must  remain  uncovered  until  they  have 
passed  the  test. 

On  completion  of  the  work,  after  all  fixtures  are  set,  the  smoke 
test  will  be  applied,  and  must  prove  satisfactory  to  the  Architect. 


309 


104  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Drains,  Soil  and  Waste  Pipes,  and  Vents.  The  plumber  will 
make  proper  connections  from  point  10  feet  outside  of  building, 
with  a  drain,  by  5-inch  iron  pipe. 

Just  inside  house  wall,  place  a  5-inch  running  trap  with  two 
cleanouts;  and  5-inch  fresh-air  pipe  from  house  side  of  trap  to  a 
point  not  less  than  15  feet  from  building,  opening  one  foot  above 
ground,  with  return  bend. 

Continue  drain  5  inches  in  diameter  under  cellar  wall,  and 
connect  the  various  soil  and  waste  pipes  with  same. 

The  trap  on  main  drain  must  be  placed  in  an  accessible  brick 
manhole,  with  8-inch  walls,  and  covered  with  stone  or  iron  cover; 
and  the  drain  pipes  must  be  laid  in  a  brick  trench  with  stone  or 
iron  cover. 

Set,  where  shown  on  plans,  lines  of  4-inch  soil  pipe,  or  2-inch 
waste  pipe,  as  necessary,  with  proper  connections  to  receive  the 
various  fixtures.  Carry  pipe  through  roof,  and  one  foot  above 
same,  increased  one  inch  in  diameter  from  a  point  below  roof;  ends 
above  roof  to  be  left  free  and  unobstructed. 

For  each  line  of  fixtures,  set  a  2-inch  pipe,  with  fittings  for  the 
various  vents.  Connect  into  soil  pipe  below  lowest  fixture,  and  at 
top  well  above  highest  fixture. 

All  water-closets  are  to  have  2-inch  local  vents  of  nickel-plated 
copper  connected  to  3-inch  spiral  galvanized  pipe,  and  carried  to 
chimney,  as  directed  by  Architect.  All  joints  in  pipes,  to  be  soldered 
tight. 

Under  refrigerator,  place  a  copper-lined  box  12  by  8  by  6  inches. 
Carry  1^-inch  lead  waste  pipe  from  box  to  basement,  with  end 
turned  up  so  as  to  form  a  water-sealed  trap  and  capped  with  light 
flap  valve,  to  waste  into  sink  or  other  receptacle  provided  for  the 
purpose. 

Fixtures.— W ater-Closet.  In  basement — one  washdown  closet, 
with  metal  outlet  of  approved  pattern,  and  with  oak  seat  (no  cover) 
attached  to  bowl  with  heavy  hinges.  Plain  12-ounce  copper-lined 
siphon  tank,  cast-brass  gooseneck,  valve,  high-pressure  ball-cock, 
iron  brackets,  chain  and  pull,  and  l|-inch  brass  flush-pipe.  Brass- 
work  to  be  polished. 

In  bathroom — one  siphon-jet  closet,  with  water-covered  out- 
let connection  between  earthenware  and  waste  pipe;  1^-inch  cherry 


310 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  105 

seat  and  cover,  with  heavy  hinges,  attached  to  bowl.  Cherry  serv- 
ice box  tank,  8  gallons'  capacity,  brass  brackets,  high-pressure  ball- 
cock,  and  IHnch  brass  flush-pipe.  Brasswork  to  be  nickel-plated. 

Lavatory.  In  bathroom — one  15  by  19-inch  straight  back, 
accessible  overflow  basin,  with  brass  plug  in  bowl,  operated  by  rod 
outside  of  basin  (approved  pattern).  Bolts  and  nuts  through  rim 
of  basin.  Top  of  basin  ground.  Heavy  low-down  pattern  com- 
pression-cocks, disc  handles;  ^-inch  -iron-size  brass  supply  pipes; 
1^-inch  deep-seal  S-pattern  trap;  plain  brass  brackets  of  design 
approved  by  Architect. 

Marble  slab  to  be  Italian  of  best  quality,  highly  polished,  and 
of  size  and  shape  as  shown  on  plans,  with  back  12  inches  high. 

Slab  to  be  1 1  inches  thick;  back,  £  inch  thick. 

Brasswork  to  be  nickel-plated. 

Bath.  In  bathroom — one  5-foot  guaranteed -quality,  enameled  - 
iron,  3-inch  roll-rim  bath,  flat  bottom,  approved  pattern,  with  f-inch 
heavy  combination  compression-cock,  disc  handles,  f-inch  supply 
pipes,  IJ-inch  connected  waste  and  overflow  pipes,  and  plug  and 
chain.  Outside  of  bath  to  be  finished  by  painter.  To  waste  through 
1^-inch  bath  trap  set  in  floor. 

Kitchen  Sink.  One  36-inch  by  24-inch  by  8-inch  soapstone 
sink,  with  12-inch  back,  and  soap  dish.  Set  on  galvanizecl-iron 
standards.  To  waste  through  6-inch  lead  trap.  Supply  through 
f-inch  compression  bibs.  Hose  end  on  cold  cock.  Brasswork  to 
be  polished. 

In  china  closet — one  24  by  14-inch  recessed,  18-ounce,  tinned- 
copper  sink,  with  1^-inch  standing  waste  and  overflow.  Waste 
same  as  in  case  of  kitchen  sink.  Supply  through  tall  gooseneck, 
heavy-pattern  compressipn-cocks.  Hose  end  on  cold  cock.  Brass- 
work  to  be  nickel-plated. 

In  laundry — two  24-inch  soapstone  trays,  with  12-inch  back, 
and  soap  dish,  plugs,  and  chains.  Set  on  galvanized-iron  standards. 

Range  Boiler.  One  40-gallon  copper  boiler  on  galvanized 
stand.  Connected  to  range  by  f-inch  brass  pipe. 

All  fixtures,  except  water-closets,  to  be  supplied  with  hot  and 
cold  water. 

Water  Supply. — Materials,  Etc.  All  cold-water  pipes  and  fit- 
tings are  to  be  galvanized  iron;  and  all  hot-water  and  circulating 


811 


106  CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 


pipes  are  to  be  iron-size  brass,  semi-annealed,  with  all  fittings  of 
brass. 

Where  exposed,  brass  or  nickel-plated  pipes  are  to  be  supported 
by  brass  or  nickel-plated  hangers. 

All  exposed  supply  pipes  in  bathroom  and  toilet  rooms,  to  be 
nickel-plated  brass,  semi-annealed;  in  kitchen,  polished  brass. 

All  risers  to  have  stop  and  waste,  roundway  same  size  as  pipe, 
in  accessible  position  in  cellar,  properly  tagged. 

All  supply  pipes  and  brarjches,  to  have  proper  pitch  so  that 
they  may  be  readily  emptied  at  their  lowest  point;  and  each  branch 
supply  of  fixtures,  to  have  compression  stops,  with  stuffing-box 
close  to  cocks. . 

Make  connection  with  water  main  in  street  by  f-inch,  4-pound 
lead  pipe;  and  carry  same  into  building.  Just  inside  wall,  place  a 
f-inch  "Simplex"  stop,  with  f-inch  stuffing-box  hose  bib  on  house 
side.  From  stopcock,  carry  galvanized  pipe  along  on  basement 
ceiling,  and  take  branches  to  supply  various  fixtures,  as  may  be 
necessa 

From  f-inch  main,  take  branches  as  follows:' 

For  risers f  inch. 

For  sill-cocks £  inch. 

For  tank  in  attic f  inch. 

Supplies  to  fixtures  will  be: 

To  lavatory  and  water-closet  tanks £  inch. 

To  baths,  sinks,  and  washtrays f  inch 

From  tank  in  attic  to  hot-water  boiler J  inch 

In  attic,  where  directed  by  Architect,  line  a  4  by  4  by  2-inch 
tank  with  14-ounce  tinned  copper,  fitted  with  f-inch  high-pressure 
ball-cock  and  proper  valves.  Overflow  to  run  to  roof  or  to  laundry 
traps  in  basement,  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Architect. 

Set,  where  directed  by  Architect,  two  f-inch  nickel-plated 
wheel-handle  sill-cocks,  with  stuffing-box.  Inside  of  wall,  place 
a  f-inch  "Simplex"  stop  and  waste. 

Hot-Water  System.  Connect  hot-water  boiler  with  tank  by 
f-inch  pipe.  Carry  f-inch  brass  pipe  from  boiler,  with  branches 
as  specified  to  supply  the  various  fixtures,  and  |-inch  brass  return 
to  boiler.  The  entire  system  to  circulate  freely  and  thoroughly. 


812 


CONTRACTS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  107 

From  highest  point  of  system,  carry  ^-inch  expansion  pipe  to 
tank,  discharging  over  top  of  same.  Place  stop-cocks  on  supply 
to  boiler  and  from  same. 

Gasfitting. — Description.  Provide  and  put  in  gas  piping  ac- 
cording to  this  specification,  and  as  shown  on  plan,  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  local  Gas-Light  Company. 

Cutting  to  be  done  by  carpenter,  not  by  gasfitter.  No  floor 
beams  to  be  cut  further  than  2  feet  from  bearings. 

Piping.  Piping  to  be  wrought-iron ;  fittings,  of  galvanized 
malleable  iron,  set  with  red  lead,  firmly  fastened.  Make  sure  that 
pipe  is  free  from  obstructions,  before  placing  in  position.  Gas- 
fitters'  cement  not  to  be  used. 

Following  is  the  scale  of  sizes  of  pipes  and  number  of  burners 
(not  outlets)  to  be  supplied  therefrom. 

Longest  run  in  feet  20  30  50  70  100  150 

Size,  pipe,  inches  |  }  J  1  £  2 

Number  of  burners  2  4  15  25  40  70 

Testing.  Piping  to  be  tight  under  pressure  of  air  equal  to 
column  of  mercury  6  inches  high.  Mercury  to  stand  without  fall- 
ing for  half  an  hour.  Outlet  caps  to  be  loosened  to  show  that 
they  affect  testing  apparatus,  and  that  there  is  no  obstruction  in  pipes. 


313 


THE  ARCHITECT  IN  HIS  LEGAL 
RELATIONS. 


CONTRACTS. 

It  is  often  wise  for  an  architect  to  regulate  his  course  with 
regard  to  legal  considerations.  An  architect  in  active  practice 
cannot  acquire  such  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  law  as  will 
enable  him  to  dispense  with  expert  advice  in  unusual  circum- 
stances, or  in  matters  of  great  importance.  The  trained  power  of 
legal  reasoning  which,  as  well  as  an  accumulated  knowledge  of  law, 
is  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  good  lawyer,  and  which  even  in 
apparently  simple  situations  is  constantly  called  into  use,  is  not  to 
be  attained  by  a  man  whose  chief  energy  is  given  to  another  pro- 
fession. Nevertheless,  it  is  important  for  an  architect  to  have 
some  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  legal  considerations  and  of  the 
legal  principles  of  commonest  application. 

In  the  following  pages  will  be  found  brief  general  statements 
of  the  law  upon  certain  matters  with  which  an  architect  is  much 
concerned,  and  suggestions  as  to  the  application  of  these  princi- 
ples to  his  business.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  law  in 
different  states  differs  widely  in  details;  it  is  impossible  here  to  go 
into  such  details;  and  what  is  given  is  intended  to  provide  such 
an  understanding  of  principles  as  will  give  the  student  a  certain 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  his  legal  rights  and  duties,  some  con- 
ception of  the  nature  of  the  mistakes  which  are  possible,  and  of 
the  precautions  which  may  be  taken,  so  as  to  constitute  a  practical 
safeguard  in  everyday  business. 

It  is  proposed  to  present  first  a  general  statement  of  legal 
principles  largely  affecting  the  relations  into  which  an  architect  is 
brought  in  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

THE  LAW  OF  CONTRACTS. 

The  building  contract,  commonly  made  between  the  owner 
and  builder,  confers  certain  powers  upon  the  architect.  While  the 
latter  is  not  a  party  to  this  contract,  and  so  cannot  enforce  it,  he 


315 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


is  by  reason  of  it  drawn  into  the  contractual  relations  of  others. 
For  this  reason  alone,  the  branch  of  the  law  dealing  with  contracts 
is  an  important  one  to  him.  Moreover  the  architect  may  have 
occasion  to  supervise  or  assist  in  the  making  of  contracts  in  behalf 
of  the  owner;  while  in  the  important  matter  of  right  to  compensa- 
tion, the  architect  is  dependent  upon  the  law  on  this  subject. 

Express  Contracts  and  Contracts  Implied  in  Law.  When 
competent  persons  make  a  contract  their  rights  are  fixed  thereby. 
If,  however,  without  any  express  contract,  one  person  gives  services 
or  goods  which  another  person  accepts,  "and  if  there  is  no  under- 
standing that  the  transaction  is  a  gift,  the  person  giving  the  ser- 
vices or  goods  is  not  without  a  right  to  compensation.  The  law 
imposes  an  obligation  upon  the  person  receiving  the  benefit  to 
make  compensation  to  the  person  from  whom  he  receives  it.  This 
obligation  is  sometimes  called  an  implied  contract,  as  if,  in  accept- 
ing the  benefit,  it  is  impliedly  agreed  to  make  recompense.-  This 
principle  is  of  great  importance  and  frequent  application.  It  will 
be  seen  later  that  it  is  applied  not  only  when  there  is  no  express 
contract,  but  also  in  some  cases  where  an  existing  express  contract 
for  some  reason  cannot  be  enforced. 

The  principle  above  stated,  that  a  contract  once  made  by  com- 
petent parties  fixes  their  rights,  is  fundamental.  Suppose  A  sues 
B  upon  an  implied  contract  for  material  furnished,  claiming  $100 
as  the  value  thereof.  If  B  alleges  and  proves  that  he  had  a  con- 
tract with  A  covering  everything  for  which  B  seeks  to  recover, 
and  that  A  has  not  complied  with  the  terms  of  this  contract,  this 
will  be  a  defense;  unless  indeed  it  can  be  shown  that,  in  spite  of 
A's  failure  exactly  to  fulfil  the  contract,  B  has  accepted  the  ma- 
terial. In  that  case  the  facts  might  raise  a  new  implied  promise. 
But  if  B  refused  the  material,  of  course  no  such  promise  could  be 
implied.  On  the  other  hand  if  A  offered  material  in  compliance 
with  the  contract,  and  B  refused  to  receive  it,  A  could  hold  B 
answerable  for  breach  of  the  express  contract  although  B  received 
no  benefit  therefrom. 

Quantum  Meruit.  The  contract  which  is  implied  in  law  is 
always  to  pay  the  fair  value  of  wrhat  has  been  received.  The  Latin 
words  quantum  meruit,  meaning  as  much  as  it  is  worth,  are 
therefore  used  to  describe  an  action  based  upon  an  implied  con- 


316 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  3 


tract.  To  recover  in  quantum  meruit  accordingly  means  to  re- 
cover the  reasonable  value,  to  be  determined  in  the  course  of  the 
action,  of  whatever  has  been  furnished.  It  has  already  been  ex- 
plained that  where  there  exists  a  valid  and  enforcable  contract,  on 
which  both  parties  have  the  right  to  insist,  no  recovery  can  be  had 
in  quantum  meruit  for  labor  and  materials  furnished  under  the 
contract.  This  does  not  mean  that  where  a  contract  once  existed 
concerning  such  work  and  labor,  or  goods  or  materials,  or  concern- 
ing a  part  of  it,  an  action  in  quantum  meruit  will  never  lie. 
There  are  various  circumstances  under  which  this  action  will  lie, 
in  spite  of  such  an  express  contract.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
contract  is  so  altered  that  it  is  no  longer  ascertainable  and  is  there- 
fore treated  as  not  existing.  In  such  a  case  an  action  on  an  im- 
plied contract  can  be  maintained.  If  a  partly  performed  contract 
is  abandoned  by  agreement  of  all  the  parties  to  it,  an  action  in 
quantum  meruit  will  lie  for  the  work  or  materials  already  fur- 
nished only  in  case  the  contrast  is  what  is  known  as  an  entire  con- 
tract as  distinguished  from  a  divisible  or  apportionable  contract. 
An  apportionable  or  divisible  contract  is  one  susceptible  of  di- 
vision or  apportionment  because  of  having  two  or  more  parts  not 
necessarily  dependent  upon  each  other  and  not  intended  to  be  so 
dependent;  as  in  the  case  of  a  contract  for  building  several  houses, 
where  there  is  nothing  an  the  contract  itself  or  the  circumstances  to 
prevent  singling  out  the  part  respecting  any  particular  house,  and 
treating  it  as  distinct  and  complete  of  itself.  Such  a  contract 
might  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  would  be  obviously  unfair  to 
one  party  or  the  other  thus  to  separate  the  parts,  and  to  hold  a 
party  bound  as  to  a  portion  without  regard  to  the  rest.  A  con- 
tract of  this  latter  sort  would  be  an  entire  contract,  that  is,  a 
contract  of.  which  the  terms,  nature  and  purposes  indicate  an  in- 
tention that  each  of  its  material  provisions  shall  be  dependent  on 
all  the  rest.  If,  then,  the  contract  which  is  abandoned  be  a  di- 
visible contract  of  which  one  or  more  complete  divisions  have  been 
performed,  the  contract  may  be  treated  as  governing  those  divis- 
ions and  recovery  may  be  had  only  under  the  contract.  But  if  the 
contract  be  an  entire  contract  it  would  not  be  fair  then  to  hold  the 
parties  as  bound  in  respect  to  a  portion  only,  never  contemplated 
as  complete  in  itself.  Their  rights  must  therefore  be  settled  on 


317 


LEGAL  KELATIONS 


the  theory  of  implied  contract,  the  party  indebted  being  answer- 
able in  quantum  meruit  only. 

Where  one  party  to  a  contract  is  ready  and  willing  to  per- 
form, but  is  prevented  from  performing  or  fr,om  completing  his 
performance  by  the  act  or  fault  of  the  other  contracting  party,  the 
first  party  may  recover  on  the  contract,  or  lie  may  elect  to  rescind 
the  contract  and  recover  in  quantum  meruit  for  the  labor  and 
materials  employed.  If  the  party  prevented  from  performing 
elects  to  rescind  the  contract  and  sue  in  quantum  rneruit,  the 
party  at  fault  is  required  to  pay  whatever  the  real  worth  of  the 
work  and  materials  is  proved  to  be,  not,  however,  according  to  the 
general  rule,  giving  compensation  in  excess  of  the  contract  price 
for  the  whole. 

In  an  action  in  quantum  meruit  the  architect's  certificate  is 
probably  not  necessary  to  recovery,  although  where  the  architect 
has  pointed  out  defects  in  the  work  or  material  already  employed 
and  the  builder  claims  to  have  remedied  them,  it  may  be  prac- 
tically necessary  for  the  builder  to  show  the  architect's  certificate 
stating  that  the  defects  have  been  satisfactorily  remedied. 

Express  Contracts — Legality  of  Contract.  In  general,  a  con- 
tract which  violates  statute  law,  or  any  principle  of  the  common 
law  or  of  public  policy,  cannot  be  enforced.  This  may  be  of  im- 
portance to  architects  in  connection  with  ^trictive  building  laws. 
The  mere  fact  that  a  contract  may  be,  or  has  been,  carried  out  in 
such  a  way  as  to  involve  forbidden  acts,  does  not  render  it  invalid; 
the  rule  is  aimed  at  such  contracts  as  necessarily  involve  the  doing 
of  something  illegal.  Similarly  a  contract  which  involves  a  civil 
wrong  to  a  third  person,  as  if  A.  employs  B  to  build  a  house  in 
part  wrongfully  standing  beyond  A's  boundary  upon  another's 
land,  is  illegal.  An  illegal  contract  cannot  be  enforced,  according 
to  the  general  rule,  even  by  one  who  performed  his  part  of  the . 
bargain,  although  for  services  rendered  under  such  a  contract  there 
might  be  some  right  of  recovery  by  implied  contract.  This  is  one 
of  the  subjects  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  give  here  more  than 

v  i  O 

the  broadest  principles;  the  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  in 
case  of  any  contract  involving  legal  wrongdoing,  there  is  occasion 
for  caution  and  for  ascertaining  legal  rights  under  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  case  as  it  arises. 


318 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


As  contracts  which  involve  violation  of  statute  or  common 
law  cannot  be  enforced,  so  there  are  principles  of  public  policy 
which  no  contract  will  be  allowed  to  contravene.  Thus  clauses 
such  as  are  common  in  building  contracts,  providing  that  any 
future  disputes  arising  in  the  course  of  dealing  between  the  par- 
ties shall  be  determined  in  some  specified  way  by  arbitration  are 
not  always  effective  to  prevent  the  parties  from  resorting  to  law. 
The  policy  of  the  law  will  not  permit  courts  of  justice  to  be  thus 
ousted  of  their  jurisdiction. 

But  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  binding  force  in  agreements  in- 
tended to  prevent  a  resort  to  the  courts,  there  is  a  method  in  which 
a  resort  to  referees  or  arbitrators  for  certain  purposes  may  be  en- 
forced. A  clause  of  a  contract  making  it  a  condition  precedent  to 
recovery  in  court,  that  the  quality  of  materials,  the  value  of  services, 
the  amount  of  damage,  the  time  of  paying  it,  or  other  matters  not 
going  to  the  root  of  the  action  itself,  shall  be  settled  in  a  certain 
way,  is  valid,  and  will  prevent  the  maintenance  of  an  action  until 
all  possible  steps  have  been  taken  to  comply  with  it.  Thus  the 
provision  of  many  building  contracts  that  certain  matters  such  as 
those  named  just  above  shall  be  referred  to  the  architect,  is  valid. 
The  further  stipulation  that  the  architect's  decision  of  such  matters 
shall  be  finally  binding,  is  also  generally  held  effective,  in  the 
absence  of  bad  faith  on  the  part  of  the  architect.  When  a  contract 
is  thus  drawn,  the  agreement  of  the  parties  rests  their  legal  rights 
directly  upon  the  decision  of  the  persons  named.  No  obligation 
under  the  contract  therefor  arises  until  the  arbitrators  decide  a 
question,  and  they  having  decided  it,  resort  may  be  had  to  the 
courts  in  order  to  enforce  their  decision.  The  courts  are  therefore 
not  ousted  of  their  jurisdiction. 

Parties.  In  order  to  have  a  good  contract,  the  parties  must  be 
legally  competent.  As  an  infant  is  favored  by  the  law,  a  person  on 
coming  of  age  may  affirm  or  repudiate  contracts  made  while  under 
the  disability  of  infancy,  although  the  other  party  to  such  a  con- 
tract is  bound.  It  is  furthermore  unsafe  to  enter  into  a  contract 
with  a  lunatic  or  a  drunken  person.  A  married  woman  was  for- 
merly unable  to  contract;  in  some  states  married  women  may  now 
make  valid  contracts  about  their  own  property,  while  in  many  states 
the  disability  is  entirely  removed. 


319 


6  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

It  may  also  be  mentioned  here  that  where  a  private  corpora- 
tion is  a  party  to  a  contract,  a  question  may  arise  whether  the  mak- 
ing of  a  contract  is  within  the  powers  of  the  corporation.  To 
determine  what  these  powers  are,  reference  must  be  had  to  the 
charter  or  articles  of  incorporation,  and  perhaps  to  the  statute  law 
of  the  state  which  created  the  corporation.  If  a  corporation  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  building  and  operating  a  railroad,  there 
would  be  no  doubt  of  its  power  to  build  a  station.  If  on  the  other 
hand  a  corporation  formed  to  carry  on  a  drug  business  should  pro- 
pose to  build  a  grain  elevator,  legal  questions  would  arise. 

In  dealing  with  public  or  municipal  corporations  also,  ques- 
tions of  the  extent  of  powers  may  be  raised.  Questions  of  this 
sort  are  extremely  varied,  and  may  be  either  very  simple  or  very 
difficult  of  solution.  Where  a  corporation  makes  a  contract  beyond 
its  powers,  the  contract  may,  so  long  as  it  remains  unperformed  on 
both  sides,  be  rescinded  by  either.  Yet  if  a  person  has  entered 
into  a  contract  with  a  corporation  which  is  in  fact  beyond  its 
powers,  but  has  had  no  reason  to  suppose  the  contract  outside  such 
powers,  and  has  in  part  performed  the  contract,  his  rights  are  gen- 
erally protected  by  the  law.  This  does  not,  however,  make  such  a 
situation  anything  but  a  very  undesirable  one,  and  care  should 
therefore  be  used  to  obtain  reasonable  assurance  that  a  contract  is 
within  the  powers  of  a  contracting  corporation.  Common  knowl- 
edge of  the  standing  and  nature  of  the  corporation  may  give  such 
assurance;  on  the  other  hand,  the  matter  may  be  so  close  to  the 
line  that  nothing  but  an  opinion  of  competent  counsel  would  be 
sufficient. 

Assuming  that  the  parties  concerned  are  capable  of  contract- 
ing, there  are  two  elements  essential  to  the  validity  of  the  ordinary 
contract  which  will  be  considered  here;  one  is  mutual  consent,  and 
the  other,  consideration. 

Consent.  In  order  to  have  a  valid  contract,  the  parties  must 
have,  and  must  communicate,  a  common  intention.  Their  minds 
must  meet  in  expressed  agreement.  If  this  element  is  absent,  there 
can  be  no  binding  contract.  For  instance,  in  an  English  case  the 
plaintiff  agreed  to  sell  and  the  defendants  to  buy  a  certain  quality 
of  Surat  cotton  to  arrive  by  the  ship  "  Peerless  "  from  Bombay. 
The  plaintiff  offered  cotton  from  a  ship  named  "Peerless"  from 


320 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


Bombay,  the  defendants  refused  to  accept  it,  and  the  plaintiff  sued 
for  damages  for  this  alleged  breach  of  contract.  It  was  admitted 
that  the  defendants  in  using  the  term  "Peerless"  meant  a  different 
ship  from  that  which  the  plaintiff  had  in  mind,  and  in  which  the 
cotton  actually  arrived;  it  therefore  appeared  that  there  was  no 
mutual  consent  to  the  same  matter.  Judgment  was  accordingly 
given  for  the  defendants.  On  the  other  hand,  the  la\v  looks  to  the 
expressions  of  the  parties,  and  when  their  expressions  necessarily 
indicate  agreement,  does  not  permit  them  to  say  that  they  were 
not  agreed. 

Consent  is  manifested  by  offer  and  acceptance.  It  follows 
from  what  has  been  said  that  both  the  offer  and  the  acceptance  must 
be  communicated,  but  each  may  be  communicated  by  conduct  as 
well  as  by  words.  Thus  if  A  asks  X  to  work  for  him  for  certain 
wages,  X  in  simply  doing  the  M'ork  may  accept  the  offer,  unless 
some  other  form  of  acceptance  was  prescribed.  It  is  also  clear  that 
the  acceptance  must  be  absolute,  and  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  offer.  If  A  makes  one  offer,  and  X  answers  that  he 
will  do  something  a  little  different  from  what  A  suggested,  there 
is  no  contract.  X's  reply  may  amount  to  a  new  offer,  which  A 
may  subsequently  accept.  This  principle  will  later  be  seen  to  be 
important  in  connection  with  an  architect's  submitting  plans  in 
response  to  a  request  for  plans  in  competition. 

An  offer  may  by  its  terms  remain  open  for  a  certain  length 
of  time;  as  for  two  weeks  or  until  the  return  mail;  if  no  duration 
is  specified  it  can  be  accepted  only  within  a  reasonable  time. 
What  is  a  reasonable  time  depends  upon  the  circumstances  of  each 
case.  In  an  action  of  law,  the  question  would  be  determined  by 
the  jury.  An  offer  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  before  accept- 
ance. The  revocation,  however,  must  be  communicated  to  the 
offeree.  If  A  offers  to  furnish  X  with  a  cornice  for  a  certain 
amount,  A  may,  at  any  time  before  X  has  accepted  the  offer,  effect- 
ively withdraw  it  by  declaring  to  X  his  intention  so  to  do.  At  the 
moment  when  a  valid  acceptance  is  made,  the  contract,  if  good  in 
other  respects,  is  complete,  and  both  parties  are  bound.  Accept- 
ance is  therefore  irrevocable  without  the  consent  of  both  parties. 

As  to  the  important  question  when  acceptance  becomes  bind- 
ing— it  is  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  the  acceptance  is  made 


321 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


when  the  acceptor  has  done  all  he  can  to  communicate  his  inten- 
tion. Thus  the  mailing  of  a  letter  of  acceptance  properly  stamped 
and  addressed  marks  the  making  of  a  contract,  and  is  irrevocable. 

O 

Under  this  rule  the  delay  or  loss  of  the  letter  in  the  mail  cannot 
delay  or  prevent  the  binding  effect  of  the  contract,  so  that  it  may 
happen  that  a  person  making  an  offer  becomes  bound  without  his 
knowledge.  For  this  reason  it  is  prudent  to  make  it  part  of  an 
offer  that  acceptance  shall  be  only  by  letter  delivered  within  a 
stated  time  at  the  office  or  into  the  hand  of  the  person  making  the 
offer.  Upon  this  point  of  acceptance  by  mail  there  has  been  some 
doubt  about  the  law,  and  there  are  old  decisions  in  one  or  two  juris- 
dictions that  there  is  no  contract  until  the  letter  of  acceptance  is 
received.  The  rule  about  acceptance  by  telegram  would  probably 
be  the  same  as  that  governing  acceptance  by  letter.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  an  acceptance  were  sent  by  an  agent  of  the  offeree,  it 
would  have  to  be  delivered  to  be  effective. 

In  this  respect  of  the  time  of  taking  effect,  re  vocation  of  an  offer, 
which  is  ineffective  until  communicated,  differs  from  acceptance. 

Consideration.  Any  promise,  not  under  seal,  requires  what 
is  called  consideration  to  render  it  legally  a  binding  contract.  If 
a  promise  be  under  seal  the  formality  of  the  seal  is  the  mark  of 
the  contract,  as  is  consideration  in  the  case  of  contracts  not  under 
seal.  A  valuable  consideration  in  the  sense  of  the  law  is  said  to 
consist  either  in  some  right,  interest,  profit  or  benefit  accruing  to 
one  party,  or  some  forbearance,  detriment,  loss,  or  responsibility 
given,  suffered  or  undertaken  by  the  other.  The  consideration 
must  be  of  value  in  the  eye  of  the  law;  but  the  question  of  degree 
of  value  is  of  no  importance;  the  slightest  consideration,  so  long 
as  the  law  recognizes  it  as  valuable,  will  support  the  largest  prom- 
ise. Consequently  upon  a  mere  promise  by  A  to  give  X  $100, 
no  obligation  arises  ;  A's  promise  being  without  consideration. 
But  if  A  offers  X  $100  for  some  service,  which  X  performs,  the 
performance,  however  unimportant,  is  good  consideration  for  the 
promise.  Another  promise  is  also  good  consideration  for  a  prom- 
ise. A  says  to  X:  "I  will  give  you  $100  if  you  will  agree 
to  draw  me  plans  for  a  house."  X  agrees  to  draw  the  plans; 
the  contract  is  then  complete,  and  X's  promise  is  consideration 
for  A's,  just  as  A's  is  consideration  for  X's.  It  is  well  to  note  a 


322 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


difference  between  the  two  foregoing  examples.  If  A  says  "I 
will  pay  you  for  making  plans,"  the  offer  can  be  accepted  only  by 
making  the  plans;  until  the  offer  is  accepted  it  can  be  revoked, 
and  A  is  not  bound.  On  the  other  hand,  if  A  offers  to  pay  a  cer- 
tain sum  if  X  will  agree  to  do  the  work,  and  X  agrees,  A  is 
bound,  and  X  is  protected,  from  that  time.  The  best  protection 
it  will  be  seen  comes  through  the  latter  sort  of  contract,  consist- 
ing in  outstanding  obligations  on  both  sides.  In  the  former  case 
there  is  really  no  contract,  but  only  an  offer,  until  the  .time  of 
acceptance  by  performance  of  one  party. 

The  Statute  of  Frauds,  which  in  somewhat  varying  form 
exists  generally  throughout  the  States,  requires  certain  contracts 
to  be  in  writing.  The  more  important  of  these  classes  for  the 
present  purposes  are  : 

Contracts  to  charge  a  person  upon  a  special  promise  to  answer 
for  the  debt,  default,  or  misdoing  of  another;  that  is,  contracts  of 
guaranty. 

Contracts  for  the  sale  of  lands  or  any  interest  in  or  concern- 
ing them. 

Contracts  not  to  be  performed  wyithin  one  year  of  the  time  of 
making. 

Contracts  for  the  sale  of  goods,  wares,  and' merchandise  of 
value  above  a  certain  amount  (generally  fifty  dollars).  In  this 
case,  however,  a  partial  delivery  of  the  goods,  as  a  partial  payment 
to  bind  the  bargain,  takes  the  place  of  writing, 

Upon  such  contracts,  except  as  stated  as  to  contracts  of  sale, 
no  action  can  be  maintained  unless  the  agreement  or  some  memo- 
randum or  note  thereof  is  in  writing  and  signed  by  the  party  to 
be  charged,  or  in  his  behalf  by  some  person  duly  authorized  thereto. 

An  architect  may  have  connection  with  contracts  of  any  of 
these  sorts  and  the  law  should  be  borne  in  mind.  The  only  class 
which  wTill  be  especially  discussed  here  is  that  of  contracts  not  to 
be  performed  within  one  year  from  the  time  of  making.  In  gen- 
eral, the  statute  does  not  include  agreements  which  are  merely 
not  likely  to  be  performed,  but  has  regard  to  such  as  according  to 
a  fair  interpretation,  and  in  view  of  existing  circumstances,  do  not 
admit  of  performance  within  a  year  from  the  time  of  making.  If, 
for  instance,  there  is  no  stipulation  as  to  time,  but  performance 


323 


10  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

depends  upon  some  event  which  may  occur  within  a  year,  the 
statute  does  not  apply.  But  if  it  is  the  manifest  intent  of  the 
parties  that  the  contract  shall  riot  be  executed  within  a  year,  the 
mere  fact  that  it  is  physically  possible  it  should  be  sooner  com- 
pleted, makes  no  difference. 

In  case  a  contract  of  one  of  the  sorts  above  enumerated  is  not 
in  writing,  a  party  may  recover  upon  it  in  spite  of  the  statute,  un- 
less the  other  party  takes  advantage  of  the  defense  of  the  statute 
in  his  pleading  in  court.  And  where  one  party  to  a  contract  which 
is  void  under  the  statute,  and  which  the  other  party  refuses  to 
carry  out,  has  performed  his  part  of  the  agreement  without  objec- 
tion by  the  other  party,  he  may  recover  compensation  upon  an 
implied  contract,  although  the  express  contract  is  unenforceable. 
So  if  an  architect  renders  services  under  an  oral  contract  which  is 
not  to  be  performed  within  a  year,  and  the  other  party  refuses  to 
pay  for  such  services,  the  architect,  while  he  cannot  recover  for 
breach  of  the  express  agreement,  may  recover  the  reasonable  value 
of  the  services  rendered,  according  to  an  implied  contract.  More- 
over, in  such  a  case  the  express  contract  can  be  given  in  evidence 
as  tending  to  show  the  value  of  the  services.  Although  the  value 
so  shown  cannot  be  enforced,  it  is  sometimes  held  that  no  more 
than  the  contract  price  can  be  recovered.  This  is  one  of  the  cases 
before  referred  to  where  the  doctrine  of  implied  contracts  is  of  im- 
portance as  furnishing  a  remedy  to  a  party  to  an  unenforceable 
express  contract. 

Conditions.  Performance  of  a  contract  by  one  party  may  be 
made  wholly  or  in  part  conditional  upon  performance  by  another. 
Thus  a  contract  by  which  A  promises  to  render  certain  services, 
and  X  agrees  to  pay  for  them,  may  be  so  worded  that  X  will  not 
be  called  upon  to  pay  unless  A  has  performed  the  services,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  may  be  so  arranged  that  A  will  not  be  obliged 
to  act  unless  he  is  paid  in  advance.  So  if  it  is  provided  in  a  con- 
tract that  X  is  to  pay  for  A's  services  only  if  they  were  completed 
by  a  certain  day,  and  A  does  not  complete  his  services  by  that 
time,  A  cannot,  unless  X  had  lost  the  right  to  insist  upon  the 
condition,  recover  under  the  contract.  His  only  ground  of  recov- 
ery would  be  under  an  acceptance  of  the  services  by  X,  and  a  con- 
sequent implied  contract.  Not  only  may  such  conditions  be  ex- 


324 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  11 

pressed,  but  they  may  also -be  implied  by  the  law.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  for  a  party  to  a  contract  to  consider  carefully  whether  he 
has  done  everything  which  he  is  called  upon  to  do  before  he  can 
maintain  an  action  against  the  other  party  for  the  failure  of  that 
other  party  to  perform  his  obligation  under  the  contract.  When  by 
the  contract  performance  by  the  one  is  expressly  made  conditional 
upon  performance  by  the  other,  the  case  is  clear;  if  no  such  con- 
ditions are  expressed,  the  question  arises  whether  any  are  implied. 
A  court  in  construing  a  contract  in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  will 
attempt  to  ascertain  the  intention  of  the  parties,  and  if  it  appears 
to  have  been  intended  that  the  whole  or  a  part  of  performance  by 
one  party  was  meant  to  be  dependent  upon  some  portion  of  the 
performance  by  the  other  party,  then  effect  will  be  given  to  this 
intention  by  holding  performance  under  the  contract  conditional 
according  to  the  intention  shown.  Take  for  instance  a  contract 
for  the  sale  of  land:  one  party  may  agree  to  convey  the  land  at  a 
certain  time,  and  the  other  to  pay  the  purchase  money  at  the  same 
time,  without  expressly  saying  that  either  act  should  be  dependent 
upon  the  performance  of  the  other.  Yet,  as  the  meaning  is  clear 
that  the  acts  are  in  reality  to  be  mutually  dependent,  neither  party 
is  called  upon  to  perform  unless  the  other  party  is  ready,  able,  and 
willing  to  carry  out  his  part;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  neither  party 
can  maintain  an  action  for  breach  without  showing  himself  to 
have  been  able,  ready  and  willing  to  perform  on  his  side.  The 
practical  result  of  these  principles  is  that  when  B  breaks  his  con- 
tract with  A,  and  A  wishes  to  hold  B  liable  for  the  breach,  A 
must  carefully  consider  whether  he  has  done  all  on  his  part  that 
is  necessary  to  put  B  in  the  wrong.  As  questions  of  some  nicety 
occur  on  such  points,  it  is  desirable  to  take  advice  of  counsel  in 
season  to  follow  out  any  suggestions  regarding  such  steps  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  a  suit. 

Construction  of  Con-tracts.  Disputes  often  arise  over  the 
meaning  of  contracts  after  they  are  made  and  perhaps  reduced  to 
writing.  This  may  come  from  careless  drawing;  it  may  be  due 
to  the  necessity  of  applying  the  contract  to  new  and  unforeseen 
circumstances,  or  it  may  arise  from  a  desire  of  one  of  the  parties 
to  a  controversy  to  strain  every  point  in  his  own  favor.  When 


325 


12  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

such  disputes  arise  it  is  an  important  matter  for  the  parties  to 
know  how  the  proper  construction  is  determined. 

If  the  question  of  the  construction  of  a  contract  is  involved 
in  a  litigated  case,  the  matter  is  determined  by  the  judge,  not  by 
the  jury.  There  are  many  rules  of  construction  by  which  the 
judge  is  guided,  only  some  of  the  more  general  and  the  more  im- 
portant of  which,  will  be  mentioned  here.  While  no  oral  evidence 
to  explain  or  supplement  a  written  contract  will  be  heard,  yet  the 
judge  may  consider  other  distinct  agreements  of  the  parties  which 
modify  the  contract  in  question.  He  will  also  hear  evidence  as  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  parties  when  the  contract  was  made,  as 
tending  to  show  the  meaning  of  expressions  used.  Oral  evidence 
may  also  be  given  to  show  the  technical,  and  sometimes  the  cus- 
tomary, meaning  of  words  contained  in  the  contract.  When,  how- 
ever, a  custom  is  relied  upon  to  give  to  a  word  a  meaning  different 
from  that  generally  accepted,  or  to  add  to  the  substance  of  a  con- 
tract, it  must  be  a  custom  that  is  reasonable,  certain,  defined,  and 
uniform.  In  most  cases  the  custom  must  be  shown  to  be  known 
to  both  parties  to  the  contract.  It  is  important  in  framing  con- 
tracts to  use  words  in  general  use,  and  to  use  them  in  a  commonly 
accepted  sense,  seeking  clearness  and  precision,  and  carefully  avoid- 
ing possible  ambiguities.  In  construing  a  contract,  the  object  of 
the  court  is  to  ascertain  the  real  intent  of  the  parties  at  the  time 
of  signing.  The  judge  seeks  to  decide  what  meaning  the  words 
had  as  used  by  the  parties,  under  the  given  circumstances,  at  the 
given  time  and  place.  In  construing  any  portion,  he  takes  the 
whole  instrument  into  account,  and  looks  for  such  an  interpreta- 
tion as  will  give  effect  to  every  part. 

Assignability  of  Contracts.  Contracts  which  involve  per- 
sonal services,  where  the  element  of  individuality  is  important, 
cannot  be  assigned,  and  the  estate  of  the  person  whose  services  are 
contracted  for  cannot  be  held  to  the  contract.  If,  therefore,  an 
architect  dies,  his  contract  for  services  is  terminated.  In  general, 
however,  a  contract  is  assignable,  and  both  the  benefit  and  the 
burden  of  it  pass  to  a  man's  estate.  In  case  of  bankruptcy  of  a 
contracting  party,  therefore,  an  ordinary  contract  passes  to  the 
assignee  or  trustee.  It  should  be  considered  in  drawing  a  contract 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  13 

whether  a  provision  is  not  wanted  making  bankruptcy,  or  death,  of 
of  one  or  either  of  the  parties,  terminate  the  contract. 

Avoidance  of  Contract.  A  contract  made  between  competent 
parties,  and  apparently  having  all  the  legal  requisites  of  a  good 
contract,  may  still  under  certain  circumstances  be  set  aside  by  the 
court.  If  in  the  formation  of  a  contract  there  has  been  mistake, 
misrepresentation,  fraud,  duress,  or  undue  influence,  the  injured 
party  may,  by  proper  legal  proceedings,  avoid  the  agreement.  Such 
mistake  as  may  be  the  basis  of  relief  must  not  be  mere  careless 
mistake;  it  is  in  many  cases  of  such  a  nature  as  almost  to  involve 
misrepresentation  or  fraud.  Duress  occurs  where  the  consent  of 
one  party  is  obtained  by  violence.  Undue  influence  implies  that 
the  will  of  one  person  is  absolutely  overcome  by  the  will  of  another, 
so  that  the  consent  of  the  first  is  not  really  an  independent  act. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  above-named  grounds  of  avoid- 
ance is  fraud.  In  case  a  contract  has  been  entered  into  upon  a 
material  and  wilfully  false  representation  by  the  other  party,  it 
may  be  avoided.  Occasion  for  this  may  arise,  for  instance,  upon 
deception  in  the  purchase  of  materials. 

Reforming  Contracts.  Where  a  contract  has  been  reduced 
to  writing,  but  through  a  mistake,  does  not  express  the  agreement 
of  the  parties,  it  may  be  reformed  by  a  court  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  real  understanding.  This  is  the  more  important  because 
of  the  important  principle  that  a  party  to  a  written  contract  is  not 
permitted  in  an  action  founded  upon  that  contract  to  show  by 
evidence  outside  the  writing  itself,  that  the  agreement  was  not 
what  the  written  statement  shows  it  to  be.  He  may  avoid  the 
contract  on  one  of  the  grounds  stated  in  the  preceding  section,  or 
he  may  show  that  another  later  contract,  whether  oral  or  written, 
affects  it,  but  he  may  not  attempt  to  show  by  oral  testimony  that 
it  was  something  different  from  the  written  expression.  If  the 
contract  was  in  fact  different  from  what  is  shown  by  the  writing, 
and  if  the  other  party  will  not  consent  to  the  required  change, 
application  should  be  made  to  the  proper  tribunal  for  reformation. 

Penalties  and  Liquidated  Damages.  If  a  contract  provides 
that  upon  default  by  one  party,  that  party  shall  pay  to  the  other  a 
certain  sum,  and  it  appears  that  the  payment  is  intended  as  a  pen- 
alty and  was  inserted  only  for  the  purpose  of  securing  performance, 


32.7 


14  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

it  will  not  be  enforced  by  the  courts.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  sum  is  named  as  a  measure  of  the  compensation  for 
a  breach,  it  is  called  liquidated  damages,  and  is  valid,  fixing  the 
amount  to  be  recovered  if,  by  reason  of  a  breach  of  contract,  the 
provision  comes  into  effect.  Provisions  of  this  nature  are  often 
introduced  into  building  contracts. 

The  courts  seek  to  ascertain  the  real  intent  of  the  parties  in 
making  the  provision.  But  the  fact  that  the  sum  is  specifically 
called  liquidated  damages  is  not  conclusive.  If  the  sum  named  is 
clearly  disproportionate  to  the  damage  which  would  be  suffered,  it 
tends  to  indicate  that  a  penalty  was  intended.  Again,  where  the 
contract  involves  doing  many  acts  of  various  sorts,  and  only  one 
fixed  sum  is  named  to  be  paid  upon  a  breach,  a  similar  inference 
would  be  drawn. 

Conversely  if  the  sum  varies  with  the  extent  of  the  breach, 
as  where  a  certain  amount  is  to  be  paid  for  each  day  of  delay,  it 
is  an  indication  of  an  intention  to  fix  liquidated  damages.  If  the 
damages  in  case  of  breach  would  be  readily  ascertainable,  it  is 
more  likely  that  a  named  sum  will  be  held  to  be  a  penalty  than  in 
cases  where  it  be  very  difficult  to  determine  the  actual  damage. 
The  attempt  to  impose  penalties  being  one  to  which  the  courts  will 
not  give  effect,  and  the  validity  of  such  clauses  depending  largely 
upon  their  reasonableness,  it  is  obvious  that  no  general  rule  for 
drawing  liquidated  damage  clauses  can  be  given.  The  matter  not 
being  a  simple  one,  it  will  be  found  that  contractors  often  have 
very  erroneous  ideas  on  the  subject,  having  learned  of  some  one  test 
sometimes  applied  by  the  courts,  and  believing  such  test  to  be 
conclusive.  The  necessity  of  care  in  drawing  these  clauses  is  in- 
creased  by  the  fact  that  where  there  is  doubt,  the  courts  incline  to 
treat  the  amount  fixed  in  the  contract  as  a  penalty,  rather  than  as 
liquidated  damages.  It  is  important  to  make  the  amount  stipu- 
lated clearly  reasonable  as  a  measure  of  damages  for  the  breach 
mentioned. 

Breach  of  Contract  Operating  as  Discharge.  If  one  party 
to  a  contract  is  guilty  of  a  serious  breach  thereof,  the  other  party 
may  thereupon  have  the  right  to  treat  the  contract  as  terminated. 
The  test  is  whether  the  breach  goes,  as  is  said,  to  the  essence  of 
the  contract.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  a  guide  to  show  what 


328 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  15 

breach  does  go  to  the  essence.  The  contract  must  be  construed  and 
the  intention  of  the  parties  ascertained.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
however,  this  possibility,  that  very  grave  deviation  by  a  builder, 
for  instance,  from  the  requirements  of  a  contract,  might,  at  the 
choice  of  the  owner,  discharge  the  contract.  Furthermore,  it  is  to 
be  noted  that  if  in  any  contract  some  matter  is  of  especial  im- 
portance, which  in  other  similar  contracts  might  be  of  little  ac- 
count, as,  for  instance,  the  time  of  performance,  its  importance 
should  be  made  clear.  In  such  case  it  is  desirable  to  state  ex- 
pressly that  the  matter  in  question  is  of  the  essence  of  the  con- 
tract, although  this  language  in  itself  would  not  be  held  conclu- 
sive. If  the  importance  of  a  certain  matter  is  made  clear,  then, 
in  case  of  breach  in  respect  of  that  matter,  the  injured  person  will 
stand  in  a  better  position,  and  be  safe  in  holding  himself  dis- 
charged from  further  obligation  to  proceed  under  the  contract.  In 
case  of  the  termination  of  a  contract,  however,  the  student  must 
remember  that  if  the  party  terminating  it  retains  the  benefit  of 
work  already  performed  by  the  other  party,  he  will  be  liable  to 
pay  for  such  work  upon  an  implied  contract. 

Discharge  by  Consent.  It  hardly  needs  to  be  said  that  a 
contract  may  at  any  time  be  discharged  by  all  the  parties  thereto. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  the  discharge,  like  the  contract,  clearly 
made  in  writing,  so  as  to  cover  all  questions  of  further  rights  and 
liabilities. 

Waiver.  If  a  party  to  a  contract  clearly  waives  his  right 
under  a  certain  clause,  and  the  other  party,  relying  on  such  a 
waiver,  does  not  fulfil  that  clause,  the  resulting  variation  from  the 
contract  terms  is  excused.  Thus  if  a  building  contract  makes  an 
architect's  certificate  a  condition  precedent  to  payment,  and  if 
the  owner  gives  the  contractor  to  understand  that  the  certificate 
will  not  be  required,  this  waiver  renders  the  production  of  the  cer- 
tificate unnecessary  as  a  condition  of  payment.  Waiver  may  be 
found  in  the  conduct,  as  well  as  in  the  words,  of  a  party.  The 
question  whether  words  or  conduct  amount  to  a  waiver,  is  one  for 
the  jury  to  decide. 

Modification.  Contracts  may  always  be  modified  by  agree- 
ment of  the  parties.  The  subsequent  agreement  must  be  a  good 
contract  according  to  the  ordinary  rules,  in  order  to  effect  a  change 


320 


16  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

in  an  existing  contract.  A  waiver  may  also  practically  modify  a 
contract.  It  is  important,  however,  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  com- 
plications and  disputes  to  have  a  contract  always  kept  clear  and 
readily  provable.  Hence  it  is  only  a  reasonable  precaution  to  have 
any  modifications  of  a  written  contract  put  in  writing.  One  advan- 
tage of  this  is  that  the  written  expression  of  the  understanding  is 
likely  to  be  made  more  definite,  thus  avoiding  disputes  on  the  ground 
of  inexactness,  as  well  as  on  the  ground  of  misunderstanding. 

Suretyship.  The  relation  of  suretyship  arises  where  besides 
an  obligee,  as,  for  instance  a  creditor,  and  the  principal  obligor,  as 
a  debtor,  there  is  another  person  who  becomes  answerable  for  the 
debt  or  default  of  the  principal  obligor,  and  who  is  called  a  surety. 

The  contract  of  a  surety  is  so  peculiar  as  to  form  the  subject 
of  a  separate  branch  of  law.  It  will  be  remembered  that  this 
contract  is  one  of  those  which,  under  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  must 
be  in  writing,  in  order  to  be  enforceable.  The  principle  of  the  lav/ 
of  Suretyship  chiefly  to  be  noticed  is  that  if  the  creditor  acts  in 
such  a  manner  as  might  affect  the  position  of  the  surety  and  in- 
crease his  liability,  the  surety  is  discharged.  Therefore,  if  in  a 
contract  between  A  and  B,  C  becomes  surety  for  performance  of 
B's  part,  A  must  proceed  with  great  caution  in  all  matters  affect- 
ing his  relations  with  B.  In  some  states  if  the  surety  requests 
the  creditor  to 'bring  suit  against  the  debtor,  and  the  creditor  re- 
fuses to  do  so,  the  surety  will  be  discharged.  Written  requests  to 
sue  are  provided  for  by  law  in  some  states.  Lack  of  diligence  in 
prosecuting  a  suit  may  forfeit  the  creditor's  right  against  the 
surety.  The  release  of  one  surety  -  discharges  co-sureties  from 
so  much  of  the  original  debt  as  the  person  discharged  could  have 
been  compelled  to  pay.  So  if  the  property  of  the  debtor  is  held 
for  security,  and  is  surrendered,  the  creditor  loses  his  claim  against 
the  surety  to  the  extent  of  the  value  of  the  property.  The  point 
chiefly  to  be  regarded  as  most  likely  to  affect  building  contracts  is 
that  any  material  alteration  in  the  contract  between  the  creditor 
and  the  principal  which  would  extend  the  liability  of  the  surety 
beyond  the  terms  of  his  original  agreement,  and  to  which  the 
surety  does  not  assent,  discharges  the  surety. 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  17 


THE  LAW  OF  AGENCY. 

An  architect  may  be  empowered,  and  act,  as  agent  of  the 
owner.  Aside  from  this  possibility,  the  law  of  agency  is  so  much 
involved  in  business  transactions,  that  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
understand  in  some  degree  the  principles  of  that  branch  of  the  law. 
The  general  principle  of  agency  is  that  a  person  acting  through 
another  is  as  much  bound  as  if  he  acted  directly,  without  such  an 
instrument. 

Agent  or  Independent  Contractor.  Not  every  person  em- 
ployed by  another  to  accomplish  an  object,  is  an  agent.  The  rela- 
tion of  agency  implies  control  of  the  agent  by  the  principal.  A 
person  may  be  employed  to  do  certain  things  in  such  a  way  as  to 
leave  him  independent,  so  far  as  any  such  authority  of  his  employer 
is  concerned,  and  bound  to  his  employer  only  by  such  definite 
agreements  as  exist  between  them.  Thus  it  has  been  held  that  a 
person  employed  under  a  certain  contract  to  build  a  house  for  an- 
other, was  not  an  agent,  but  was  an  independent  contractor;  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  contractor  under  the  ordinary  building  con- 
tract would  be  so  held.  An  important  result  of  this  would  be  that 
the  owner  would  not  be  liable  for  acts  and  neglect  of  the  con- 
tractor in  the  way  in  which  it  will  appear  a  principal  is  liable  for 
acts  and  neglect  of  his  agent. 

Powers  of  Agent.  So  long  as  an  agent  acts  within  the  scope 
of  his  authority,  he  binds  his  principal  thereby.  The  authority  of 
an  agent  may  be  expressly  granted  or  impliedly  granted.  If  per- 
sons dealing  with  an  agent  know  him  to  be  acting  under  a  written 
power  of  attorney,  they  are  bound  to  inquire  and  take  notice  of  the 
nature  and  scope  of  the  power,  and  fail  to  do  so  at  their  own  risk. 
If  the  expression  of  the  authority  has  excluded  a  certain  power, 
persons  dealing  with  the  ageirt  are  held  to  know  that  such  is  the 
fact,  and  cannot,  therefore,  hold  the  principal  bound  by  the  action 
of  his  agent  in  excess  of  the  power  granted.  But  an  agent  may, 
and  usually  does,  have  powers  outside  of  such  as  are  expressed. 
These  are  called  implied  powers.  The  extent  of  such  implied 
powers  is  oftentimes  a  difficult  question  of  law.  Such  powers  are 
to  be  implied  only  from  facts  from  which  is  inferred  the  intention 
of  the  principal  to  grant  them.  It  is  said  that  every  delegation  of 


331 


18  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

power  carries  with  it,  as  implied  powers,  authority  to  do  all  things 
reasonably  necessary  and  proper  to  carry  into  effect  the  main  power 
conferred,  and  not  forbidden  by  the  principal.  Moreover  a  widely 
known  and  long  existing  usage  which  is  reasonable  and  not  con- 
trary to  law,  may  have  the  effect  of  conferring  power  upon  an 
agent  in  addition  to  that  expressly  granted.  It  is  also  to  be  noted 
that  although  an  act  of  an  agent  exceeds  his  authority,  the  princi- 
pal may  subsequently  ratify  the  act  so  as  to  make  it  binding  upon 
himself  as  if  authorized  in  the  first  instance. 

Liability  of  Principal.  Not  only  is  a  principal  liable  upon 
such  contractual  obligations  as  may  be  entered  into  by  his  agent 
acting  in  his  behalf  within  the  scope  of  the  granted  authority,  but 
the  principal  is  also  liable  for  such  torts,  or  civil  wrongs,  such  as 
trespass,  assault,  or  battery,  which  his  agent  may  commit  in  the 
course  of  his  business.  This  often  proves  a  serious  matter  to  em- 
ployers, although  the  development  of  liability  insurance  has  fur- 
nished a  means  of  equalizing  the  risks.  This  shows  further  the 
importance  of  the  question  whether  a  person  is  an  agent  or  an 
independent  contractor.  If  he  be  the  former,  then  the  principal 
as  well  as  the  agent  himself,  is  liable  for  torts.  If  the  latter, 
there  is  no  way  of  going  back  of  the  individual  wrongdoing. 

Duties  of  Agent  to  Principal.  The  first  duty  of  an  agent  is 
the  strict  and  far  reaching  one  of  loyalty  to  his  trust.  In  enforc- 
ing this  the  law  looks  not  at  the  intent  or  effect  in  any  given 
transaction,  but  at  the  tendency  of  such  transactions  in  general, 
and  at  the  policy  of  permitting  a  given  course  of  dealing.  Thus 
it  is  a  general  rule  that  an  agent  may  not  deal  in  the  business  of 
the  agency  for  his  own  benefit,  but  that  all  the  profits  made  in  the 
business  of  the  agency  belong  to  the  principal.  A  decision  in 
accordance  with  this  rule  held  that  where  one  person  employed 
another  for  hire  to  pursue  and  capture  a  horse  thief,  the  principal 
was  entitled  to  a  reward  offered  for  the  capture  effected  by  the 
agent.  While  an  architect  in  the  ordinary  course  of  his  profes- 
sional duties  does  not  act  exclusively  as  agent  of  the  building 
owner,  yet  in  matters  where  he  is  not  acting  as  arbiter  between 
the  owner  and  the  contractor  he  is  in  general  held  to  a  duty  of 
loyalty  to  his  employer  which  is  substantially  that  of  an  agent. 
Thus  it  sometimes  occurs  that  dealers  offer  rebates  to  architects 


332 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  19 


specifying  their  wares;  such  rebates  undoubtedly  belong  to  the 
owners,  the  owner  being  entitled  to  singleness  of  purpose  in  his 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  architect,  and  the  latter  being  under 
obligation  to  obtain  supplies  at  the  lowest  possible  price  and  give 
his  employer  the  full  benefit  thereof.  The  operation  of  the  rule  of 
agency  is  not  defeated  by  a  custom  to  the  contrary,  nor  is  an  agent 
allowed  to  accomplish  by  indirect  means  what  would  not  be  per- 
mitted if  done  openly  and  directly. 

Another  duty  of  the  agent  is  to  obey  instructions,  and  the 
agent  is  liable  for  losses  incurred  by  his  disobedience.  While  the 
necessity  of  a  sudden  emergency  may  be  a  justification  for  the 
agent,  in  the  use  of  sound  discretion,  in  departing  from  his  instruc- 
tions without  consulting  his  principal,  on  ordinary  occasions  an 
agent  makes  material  and  unauthorized  departures  from  his  origi- 
nal instructions  at  his  peril.  It  is  further  the  duty  of  every  agent 
"to  bring  to  the  performance  of  his  undertaking,  and  to  exercise 
in  such  performance,  that  degree  of  skill,  oare  and  diligence  which 
the  nature  of  the  undertaking  and  the  time,  place  and  circum- 
stances of  the  performance  justly  and  reasonably  demand.  A 
failure  to  do  this,  whereby  the  principal  suffers  loss  or  injury,  con- 
stitutes negligence  for  which  the  agent  is  responsible."*  The  law 
holds  an  agent  to  the  exercise  of  such  care  and  skill  as  persons  of 
common  capacity  engaged  in  the  same  business  may  be  supposed 
to  possess.  In  the  case  of  an  architect  the  law  would  presume,  in 
the  absence  of  anything  to  the  contrary,  that  in  giving  his  services, 
he  warranted  himself  to  possess  in  a  reasonable  degree,  the  knowl- 
edge and  skill  required  for  the  work  undertaken. 

Delegation  of  Powers  by  Agent.  The  principal  is  entitled 
to  the  personal  knowledge  and  skill  of  his  chosen  agent,  and  the 
agent  may  not  unless  specially  authorized,  delegate  to  others  the 
powers  conferred  upon  him  by  his  principal.  But  in  the  case  of 
duties  of  the  agent  which  are  merely  mechanical  or  ministerial, 
involving  no  elements  of  judgment,  discretion  or  personal  skill, 
power  to  delegate  is  implied.  So  the  nature  of  the.  duty  may  be 
such  as  to  require  reliance  upon  others  in  performing  it;  and  the 
authority  of  an  agent  will  be  so  construed  as  to  include  the  neces- 


f  Mechern  on  Agency,  p.  329. 


333 


20  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

sary  and  usual  means  of  execution,  so  long  as  such  means  are  not 
prohibited  by  express  instructions. 

.  Undisclosed  Principal.  When  an  agent,  in  dealing  with  a 
third  party,  does  not  disclose  the  name  of  his  principal,  the  third 
party  is  at  liberty,  on  rinding  out  who  the  principal  is,  to  choose 
between  holding  him  responsible,  or  holding  the  agent  himself 
personally  bound  by  the  transaction.  Consequently  an  agent,  for 
his  own  protection,  should  not  only  state  that  he  represents  an- 
other person,  and  is  not  binding  himself,  but  should  make  it  clear 
just  who  his  principal  is.  Thus  if  an  architect  be  employed  to 
purchase  material  or  to  contract  for  labor,  he  ought  to  state  that 
he  acts  only  in  behalf  of  the  owner,  whose  name  he  should  give. 
The  proper  form  of  signature  where  an  agent  acts  for  his  princi- 
pal is  "A  (name  of  principal),  by  his  attorney,  B(name  of  agent)." 
Questions  of  Agency  in  Connection  with  Corporations,  So- 
cieties and  Public  Officers.  In  dealing  with  a  body  of  persons, 
incorporated  or  unincorporated,  it  is  important  for  an  architect  to 
know  whether  his  employment  is  authorized,  so  that  he  may  look 
to  some  satisfactory  source  for  his  compensation.  It  has  already 
been  stated  that  in  dealing  with  corporations  it  is  prudent  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  proposed  action  is  within  the  powers  of  the  cor- 
poration. It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  a  corporation  can  act  only 
through  agents,  and  that  questions  will  therefore  arise  as  to  the 
powers  of  the  agent,  who  will  usually  be  an  officer  of  the  corpora- 
tion. Thus  in  entering  into  a  contract  with  a  corporation,  one 
should  have  evidence  of  the  powers  of  the  representative  of  the 
corporation  with  whom  he  deals.  The  power  would  generally 
appear  in  the  by-laws  or  in  some  vote  of  the  stockholders  or  di- 
rectors. Many  powers  connected  with  routine  business  are  con- 
ferred upon  officers  merely  by  virtue  of  their  office,  the  by-laws 
investing  them  with  "  the  duties  usually  incident  to"  the  office  in 
question.  In  important  matters  depending  upon  votes,  it  is  to  be 
considered  whether  the  proceedings  are  formally  correct,  a  matter 
upon  which  expert  advice  may  bo  necessary.  Oftentimes  business 
houses  or  social  or  religions  societies  have  names  which  might  in- 
dicate them  to  be  corporations,  while  in  fact  they  are  not  incor- 
porated. The  law  does  not  recognize  as  an  entity  or  unit  any  firm 
or  unincorporated  association,  but  regards  such  bodies  as  merely 


334 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  21 


collections  of  individuals,  although  statutes  in  some  states  permit 
suit  to  be  brought  against  even  an  unincorporated  society  as  a 
body.  Aside  from  these  statutes,  in  suing  a  club  or  unincor- 
porated society  the  persons  composing  it  must  be  named  individ- 
ually, and  the  legal  remedy  is  against  such  members  as  are  liable; 
whereas  in  the  case  of  a  corporation,  it  is  sued  as  a  legal  person. 
In  the  latter  case  the  liability  of  stockholders  is  limited;  but  a 
member  of  an  unincorporated  club  or  society  who  is  bound  by  a 
contract  made  for  the  society  may  be  liable  to  the  full  extent  of 
the  contract.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down,  however,  that  all 
members  are  liable  for  acts  of  a  society.  The  question  arises 
whether  each  member  has  given  authority  to  bind  him  by  the 
given  action,  a  question  often  of  great  difficulty.  Thus  an  archi- 
tect who  supposes  himself  to  be  acting  for  a  club  or  religious  so- 
ciety, may  find  himself  in  case  of  dispute  with  a  claim  against 
only  the  members  of  a  small  committee  which  authorized  the  work. 
In  dealing  with  public  officials,  the  limits  of  their  authority 
are  to  be  ascertained  from  the  general  laws,  or  from  the  charter  of 
the  particular  municipality.  A  public  body,  in  order  to  have  its 
acts  valid,  must  be  acting  as  a  body  at  a  meeting  properly  held 
and  organized.  The  agreement  of  all  the  members  of  such  a  body 
outside  of  a  meeting  does  not  constitute  official  action. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MATTERS. 

Law  and  Equity.  Our  courts  give  relief  of  two  classes,  ac- 
cording as  they  sit  as  courts  of  law  or  courts  of  equity.  Equitable 
powers  were  formerly  exercised  by  separate  courts;  but  now  the 
higher  courts  generally  have  both  legal  and  equitable  jurisdiction. 
A  court  of  law  as  such  is  limited  in  its  method  of  relief.  Except 
in  some  cases  in  which  the  return  of  a  specific  chattel  will  be 
directed,  and  in  actions  concerning  the  title  to  real  estate,  a  court 
of  law  can  only  compel  the  payment  of  damages.  A  court  exercis- 
ing equitable  powers,  on  the  other  hand,  may  order  a  defendant  to 
act,  or  not  to  act,  in  a  certain  way;  the  penalty  for  failure  to  com- 
ply with  such  an  order  is  punishment  for  contempt.  Injunctions 
present  a  familiar  instance  of  an  equitable  remedy,  enforceable  by 
contempt  proceedings. 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


One  of  the  important  classes  of  equitable  actions  is  found  in 
bills  for  the  specific  performance  of  a  contract.  Instead  of  sub- 
mitting to  a  breach  of  contract,  and  recovering  money  damages 
therefor,  the  aggrieved  party  may  in  many,  but  not  in  all  cases; 
by  means  of  a  bill  in  equity,  compel  the  other  party  to  perform 
the  contract.  Thus  in  the  case  of  contracts  for  the  sale  of  land, 
equity  will  take  jurisdiction;  in  that  of  contracts  for  the  sale  of 
personal  property,  equitable  relief  is  not  ordinarily  given.  Equity 
will  not  in  general  grant  specific  performance  of  a  contract  involv- 
ing the  exercise  of  discretion  and  skill  and  the  rendering  of  personal 
services,  and  would  undoubtedly  refuse  to  compel  an  architect  to 
carry  out  an  agreement  to  perform  the  services  commonly  rendered 
in  the  designing  and  building  of  a  house.  The  reason  is  found  in 
the  impossibility  of  judicial  supervision  of  the  work.  The  remedy 
for  such  a  refusal  by  an  architect  would  be  by  an  action  for  dam- 
ages. A  building  agreement  would  not  ordinarily  be  enforced  in 
equity,  although  certain  agreements  involving  simple  construction 
have  been  enforced.  A  negative  promise,  as  if  an  architect  promises 
not  to  work  for  any  person  in  a  certain  locality,  other  than  A,  or 
not  to  erect  a  building  similar  to  X's,  may  be  enforced  by 
injunction. 

The  reforming  of  contracts,  hitherto  referred  to,  is  also  a 
matter  within  the  powers  of  a  court  of  equity  only. 

Resort  to  Legal  Proceedings.  In  regard  to  resort  to  the 
courts  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  necessary  not  only  to 
have  a  just  case,  but  also  to  prove  it.  This  proof  may  be  before 
a  jury  if  either  side  so  chooses,  and  a  little  reflection  will  show 
the  element  of  uncertainty  which  is  thus  introduced  into  any 
litigated  dispute.  Moreover  the  matter  of  proving  one's  case  is 
much  affected  by  the  rules  of  evidence,  rules  sometimes  arbitrary 
in  their  nature,  and  largely  the  result  of  practical  considerations 
involved  in  the  use  of  the  jury  system.  From  these  it  may  result 
that  matters  which  have  some  weight  in  ordinary  discussion,  are 
not  allowed  to  reach  the  ears  of  a  jury.  .  Thus  hearsay,  or  what 
one  person  knows  only  by  the  word  of  another,  is  generally  ex- 
cluded, although  it  might  have  a  certain  limited  value  as  proof. 
Another  practical  consideration  in  a  question  of  bringing  suit 
arises  in  the  difference  in  the  laws  of  different  states.  It  may 


LEGAL   RELATIONS  23 


happen  that  a  person's  chances  of  success  in  a  suit  depend  upon 
the  place  where  his  action  may  be  brought.  The  delay  necessarily 
incident  to  legal  proceedings,  a  delay  especially  trying  in  the  large 
cities,  is  also  to  be  considered.  From  these  few  considerations 
alone  it  appears  that  the  question  of  advisability  of  bringing  suit, 
or  of  peaceful  compromise,  may  be  a  complicated  one.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  no  means  every  suit  that  is  begun  is  settled  by  trial 
in  court.  A  lawsuit  may  be  an  excellent  means  of  bringing  an 
obstinate  or  grasping  person  to  reason. 

Liens.  A  lien  is  a  claim  or  hold  upon  the  property  of  an- 
other as  security  for  a  debt  or  claim.  Statutes  in  many  states 
give  so-called  mechanics'  liens  upon  land  and  buildings  to  various 
persons  who  have  done  work  in  constructing  or  repairing  the  lat- 
ter, although  it  be  only  a  contractor,  and  not  the  landowner,  who 
is  liable  upon  the  contract.  In  a  few  states  these  statutes  have 
been  held  to  extend  to  architects;  while  in  some  other  states  it  has 
been  held  that  architects  are  not  entitled  to  liens  for  services  under 
these  statutes. 

These  laws  are  of  importance  to  owners  inasmuch  as  they 
render  their  property  liable  for  the  debts  of  the  contractors,  since 
an  unpaid  workman,  hired  by  the  contractor,  can  secure  his  wages 
through  his  lien  on  the  building.  It  is  therefore  common  in 
building  contracts  to  guard  against  loss  on  this  score  by  a  provis- 
ion that  the  last  payment  shall  be  made  only  after  the  lapse  of  a 
certain  time  after  the  completion  of  the  work.  The  period  named 
corresponds  with  the  limit  of  time  for  claiming  liens.  Workmen 
and  sub-contractors  are  usually  very  familiar  with  the  law  in  the 
details  in  which  it  immediately  affects  their  rights,  and  commonly 
conduct  themselves  in  their  work,  in  cases  in  which  trouble  is  an- 
ticipated, with  a  view  to  helping  their  legal  remedies.  Thus  it 
will  be  found  that  sub-contractors  very  frequently  prolong  their 
work  on  one  pretext  and  another,  in  the  hope  of  extending  the  time 
within  which  liens  may  be  secured.  The  legal  means  necessary  to 
establish  these  liens  cannot  be  stated  here.  The  services  of  a 
lawyer  are  necessary,  as  in  instituting  any  other  legal  proceeding. 

Bankruptcy  and  Insolvency.  The  statute  law  provides  a 
method  by  which  a  person  can,  by  giving  up  all  his  property  and 
otherwise  fulfilling  the  terms  of  the  law,  escape  further  liability 


337 


24  LEGAL  RELATIONS 


upon  ordinary  debts.  State  laws  upon  this  subject  are  called  In- 
solvency Acts,  and  are  all  superseded  by  an  Act  of  Congress  on 
the  subject,  the  latter  being  known  as  a  Bankruptcy  Act.  At 
present  a  Bankruptcy  Act  is  in  effect.  An  adjudication  of  bank- 
ruptcy or  insolvency  may  take  place  upon  the  petition  of  a  debtor 
or  of  his  creditors,  and  thereafter  all  the  property  of  the  debtor  is 
vested  by  order  of  court  or  otherwise  in  some  person  appointed  by 
the  court  usually  called  an  assignee  or  trustee.  By  this  transfer 
of  property  any  assignable  contract  would  pass  to  such  trustee  or 
assignee.  If  the  contract  is  not  assignable,  it  would  not  pass,  but 
in  that  case  the  original  contractor,  stripped  of  property  and  of 
credit,  is  not  a  desirable  person  with  whom  to  continue  relations. 
For  these  reasons  it  is  well,  as  has  already  been  said,  to  introduce 
a  clause  into  building  contracts  that  the  insolvency  or  bankruptcy 
of  the  builder  or  owner  shall  release  the  other  party  from  further 
performance. 

One  who  is  a  creditor  of  an  insolvent  has  to  prove  his  claim 
before  the  court  in  a  formal  manner.  If  one  has  a  large  claim 
against  such  a  person,  it  is  sometimes  best  to  secure  counsel,  as 
fraudulent  practices,  intended  to  deprive  creditors  of  their  dues, 
are  not  uncommon. 

Knowledge  of  the  Statute  Law.  A  practicing  architect 
should  familiarize  himself  with  such  laws  of  the  state,  and  such 
ordinances  of  the  town  or  city  in  which  he  is  employed  as  espec- 
ially apply  to  his  work.  These  laws  and  ordinances  may  concern 
him  in  many  ways.  It  may  be  that  such  laws  will  require  a  license 
for  the  practice  of  an  architect's  profession;  and  they  probably  will 
impose  building  restrictions  with  which  it  is  important  for  him  to 
be  familiar.  He  should  know  what,  if  any,  privilege  of  inspection 
is  vested  in  any  persons  by  force  of  the  law,  and  he  should  under- 
stand the  requirements  about  building  permits  and  other  similar 
matters.  It  is  sometimes  provided  that  public  contracts  shall  be 
awarded  only  after  competition,  and  certain  notice  given,  so  that  if 
the  requirements  are  not  complied  with,  such  a  contract  will  not 
be  valid.  In  many  places  the  building  laws  will  be  found  to  be 
collected  and  printed  together;  inquiry  at  a  city  hall  for  such  a 
compilation  is  advisable.  In  other  places  it  may  be  necessary  to 
seek  out  the  laws  on  these -matters  from  general  compilations.  It 


338 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  25 


is  a  familiar  maxim  that  ignorance  of  the  law  is  no  excuse  for 
breach  of  it.  Moreover  it  will  be  seen  later  that  a  person  employ- 
ing an  architect  has  a  right  to  rely  on  the  architect's  knowledge  of 
building  regulations;  so  that  the  latter  will  be  liable  to  his  em- 
ployer if  through  his  ignorance  the  laws  are  infringed  and  the 
employer  suffers.  Service  in  the  office  of  an  architect  of  estab- 
lished practice  has  the  advantage  that  many  points  of  information 
of  this  sort,  wrhich  it  may  be  difficult  to  obtain  elsewhere,  become 
familiar  to  the  student. 

Torts.  Torts  are  a  large  class  of  wrongs  arising  not  in  a 
breach  of  a  contractual  duty  owed  by  one  person  to  another,  but 
in  the  breach  of  a  duty  which  the  law  imposes  upon  one  member 
of  society  for  the  benefit  of  others.  Thus  a  man  owes  a  duty  to 
use  due  care  to  avoid  injury  to  any  one  of  his  fellows  with  whom 
he  is  brought  into  contact.  The  commoner  torts  are  familiar  to 
everyone — trespass,  assault,  battery,  and  actions  for  negligence. 
A  few  not  so  commonly  understood  may  be  mentioned  here. 

If  A  makes  to  B  a  statement  knowing  it  to  be  false,  and  in- 
tending to  lead  B  to  act  up-"  it.  and  B  does  act  upon  it  to  his 
damage,  A  is  liable.  This  is  called  deceit.  It  is  not  uncommon 
that  such  statements  are  made  to  induce  a  person  to  enter  into 
some  relation  or  contract.  The  fraud  may  then,  as  has  been  seen, 
afford  ground  for  treating  the  contract  as  void;  it  may  also  give 
rise  to  an  action  for  deceit. 

The  law  imposes  various  duties  upon  landowners  to  keep  their 
premises  in  safe  condition  for  persons  using  it  in  the  regular 
course  of  business.  The  duty  need  not  be  considered  here  further 
than  to  say  that  if  an  architect  so  designs  a  building  as  to  render 
it  dangerous  to  persons  in  the  uses  contemplated  for  it,  he  may 
cause  the  owner  to  be  liable  for  ensuing  damage.  For  this  loss  to 
the  owner  it  will  be  seen  later  the  architect  might  be  legally  re- 
sponsible. 

There  is  one  liability  of  an  extraordinary  sort  which  may 
occasionally  affect  a  landlord.  Ordinarily  if  a  man's  use  of  his 
land  causes  damage  to  another  the  landowner  is  liable  only  if  his 
negligence  contributed  to  the  damage.  But  if  a  man  builds  a 
peculiarly  dangerous  structure  on  hi's  land,  then  he  may  be  liable 
for  any  damage  it  causes,  although  he  is  guilty  of  no  negligence, 


26  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

and  although  the  damage  would  not  have  occurred  but  for  some 
natural  catastrophe,  as  a  flood  or  tornado.  So  a  man  building  a 
reservoir  on  his  land  has  been  held  liable  for  damage  caused  by  its 
bursting  in  time  of  flood;  and  the  doctrine  might  be  extended  to 
cover  a  variety  of  unusual  or  essentially  dangerous  structures,  thus 
necessitating  extraordinary  care  in  construction. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  for  torts  of  an  agent  committed 
in  the  course  of  his  employment,  the  principal,  as  well  as  the  agent 
himself,  is  liable. 

IN  GENERAL. 

The  first  part  of  an  architect's  duty  in  any  given  employment 
is  ordinarily  the  drawing  of  plans.  In  this  work  he  acts  substan- 
tially as  another  person  of  skill  might  act  in  another  capacity — a 
lawyer  in  drawing  a  will,  or  a  physician  in  treating  a  case.  It  is 
sometimes  said  he  is  at  this  stage  the  agent  of  the  owner;  but  in 
the  typical  case  no  questions  of  agency  are  practically  involved, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  architect  may  not  be  considered  at  this 
stage  as  in  the  position  of  an  independent  contractor. 

The  plans  being  completed  and  accepted,  the  architect  often 
a'ets  for  his  employer  in  getting  bids.  At  this  time  he  may  be 
invested  with  powers  as  agent  of  the  owner.  But  this  can  be  only 
by  express  agreement,  and  the  architect  should  be  extremely  care- 
ful not  to  make  any  representations  or  arrangements  in  which  he 
may  seem  to  act  for  the  owner  unless  there  is  unquestionable 
authority  to  bind  the  latter.  Otherwise,  as  has  been  seen,  the 
architect  may  make  himself  personally  liable.  Where  the  architect 
has  no  power  as  agent,  but  is  concerned  in  assisting  his  employer, 
without  having  power  to  bind  him,  it  may  be  well  for  the  architect 
to  state  expressly  that  he  has  no  authority  to  bind  the  owner,  and 
that  his  inquiries  or  suggestions  are  made  only  for  the  purpose  of 
submitting  the  results.  At  this  stage,  then,  an  architect  may  by 
special,  arrangement  be  agent  of  the  owner,  or  there  may  be  no 
agency  involved,  or  an  agency  so  narrow,  in  the  mere  advertising  for 
bids,  or  receiving  offers,  as  to  present  no  questions  of  importance. 

When  the  contract  between  the  owner  and  the  builder,  called 
the  "building  contract",  has  been  made,  the  architect  has  certain 
powers  and  duties  under  that  contract.  Of  course  the  owner  may 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  27 


invest  the  architect  at  this  stage  also  with  various  powers  as  his 
agent.  Such  powers,  depending  upon  the  agreement  in  each  case, 
cannot  be  profitably  discussed  here.  The  general  observations  on 
the  subject  of  agency  will  apply.  But  as  to  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  architect  under  the  building  contract,  there  is  now  such  con- 
formity in  building  contracts,  and  the  position  of  the  architect  is  so 
substantially  similar  in  the  majority  of  cases,  that  the  matter  may 
well  be  considered.  With  "The  Uniform  Contract,"*  which  is  now 
very  commonly  used,  it  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  become 
familiar. 

THE  ARCHITECT'S  POSITION  UNDER  THE  BUILDING 
CONTRACT. 

Whatever  powers  the  architect  has,  under  the  building  con- 
tract, which  is  a  contract  between  the  owner  and  the  contractor, 
are  not  powers  which  he  himself  can  enforce.  The  parties  to  that 
contract  have  not,  by  virtue  thereof,  bound  themselves  to  him. 
They  have  made  mutual  promises,  and  have  given  to  the  acts  of 
the  architect,  as  between  themselves,  a  certain  force.  By  virtue 
of  this  agreement  either  party  to  it  may  hold  the  other  to  this 
provision  giving  effect  to  the  architect's  action.  But  the  architect 
himself  cannot  insist  upon  having  that  effect  given  to  his  acts. 
In  a  sense,  it  may  be  said  that  he  has  rights,  but,  legally  speaking, 
he  has  no  rights  under  the  contract.  Whatever  contractual  rights 
he  has  as  against  the  owner  or  contractor  must  be  by  virtue  of 
some  contract  to  which  he  is  a  party.  And  whatever  similar 
rights  the  other  parties  have  against  him  must  be  by  virtue  of 
some  contract  to  which  he  is  a  party.  To  illustrate — the  building 
contract  usually  provides  for  inspection  by  the  architect.  Should 
the  contractor  refuse  to  permit  this  inspection,  the- refusal  would 
be  a  breach  of  his  contractual  duty  to  the  owner;  but  the  archi- 
tect himself  would  have  no  legal  cause  of  complaint  against  the 
contractor,  for  the  contractor's  promise  in  regard  to  inspection  was 
made,  not  to  the  architect,  but  to  the  owner;  the  only  legal  cause 
for  complaint  would  therefore  be  in  the  owner.  Bearing  this  in 
mind,  what,  merely  as  between  the  owner  and  contractor,  are  the 
duties  and  powers  with  which  the  architect  is  invested  by  the 
building  contract  ? 

*See  Appendix  I. 


341 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


As  Regards  Certificates.  It  is  commonly  provided  in  the 
building  contract  that  payments  for  work  shall  be  conditional  upon 
the  giving  of  certificates  by  the  architect.  Such  a  provision  in  an 
ordinary  contract  applies  to  extras  as  well  as  to,  the  specified  work, 
since  extras  are  contemplated  and  provided  for  in  the  contract. 
Inasmuch  as  the  giving  of  the  certificate  demands  an  exercise  of 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  person  giving  it,  such  certificate  should 
be  given  only  by  the  party  named  to  give  it — by  the  architect 
himself — and  on  his  own  knowledge  of  the  facts;  unless,  indeed, 
there  is  an  express  provision  in  the  contract  authorizing  him  to 
delegate  this  duty  to  another.  Where  there  is  such  a  provision 
for  delegation  a  certificate  by  the  party  to  whom  the  duty  has  been 
delegated  is,  of  course,  valid. 

Similarly  the  certificate  of  the  architect  must  be  strictly  in 
the  form  provided  for  in  the  contract.  If  the  contract  does  not 
provide  that  the '  certificate  shall  be  in  writing  there  is  no  rule  of 
law  precluding  a  certificate  by  word  of  rnouth.  Were  there  space 
within  the  limits  of  this  article,  many  decisions  might  be  cited 
holding  certificates  sufficient  or  insufficient  under  the  contracts 
applying  to  the  respective  cases.  The  following  will  suffice  to  show 
what  sort  of  question  arises: 

In  an  Illinois  case  (Barney  v.  Giles,  120  111.  154),  the  build- 
ing contract  provided  that  payment  in  full  should  be  made  "on  the 
presentation  of  the  architect's  certificate  certifying  that  the  con- 
tract has  been  and  truly  performed,  and  accepted  by  him,  and  that 
all  damages  or  allowances  which  should  be  paid  or  made  by  the 
parties  of  the  second  part,  have  been  deducted  from  the  amount  of 
the  said  final  certificate".  A  certificate  was  given,  the  substantial 
part  of  which  was  as  follows: 

"  This  is  to  certify  that  Barney  &  Rodatz,  contractors  for  the 
mason  work  of  your  additional  stores,  are  entitled  to  a  payment  of 
$1,079.73,  by  the  terms  of  contract. 

"  Remarks — Work  has  been  measured  at  building  ". 

It  was  held  that  this  certificate  was  insufficient  because  it  did 
not  state  that  there  were  no  claims  for  damages;  and  that  the  mere 
fact  that  no  claims  had  been  presented  did  not  remedy  the  defect. 

Where  the  architect  certifies  to  the  work  at  its  different  stages 

O        } 

i.e.,  gives  interim   certificates,  he  should  be  very  careful  not  to 


342 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  29 


overestimate  the  work  done,  because  if  he  does  overestimate,  and 
the  contractor  abandons  his  contract,  the  owner  will  be  left  in  the 
position  of  having  paid  more  for  the  finished  portion  of  the  work 
than  it  was  worth,  and  the  architect  may  find  himself  personally 
liable  for  the  amount  in  excess  of  what  he  should  have  certified  to. 

The  architect's  final  certificate  is  the  document  in  accordance 
with  which  the  accounts  are  closed,  and  should  be  made  up  very 
carefully.  It  should  be  given  only  after  all  the  work  is  done,  the 
extras  noted,  and,  if  allowed,  a  reasonable  price  fixed  therefor. 
The  architect  should  at  this  time  be  informed  of  all  variations  or 
all  omissions  in  the  performance  of  the  contract,  and  the  rights  of 
the  owner  in  respect  to  such  are  to  be  carefully  protected.  If  the 
variations  are  of  a  serious  nature,  the  owner  may  not  be  obliged 
to  accept  or  pay  for  the  work.  On  the  other  hand,  the  owner  may 
take  the  work  as  it  stands,  but  demand  and,  if  necessary,  recover 
at  law,  damages  for  the  deviations  from  the  contract.  Where  the 
contract  is  not  exactly  carried  out,  the  architect  should  ordinarily 
refuse  a  final  certificate.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  proper  for  him 
to  give  a  certificate  stating  all  omissions  or  variations  from  the 
contract,  and  reserving  to  the  owner  all  rights  on  account  thereof. 
This  latter  course  might  be  called  for  by  the  terms  of  a  particular 
contract,  or  it  might  be  rendered  proper  by  agreement  of  the  par- 
ties. Where  a  conditional  certificate  of  this  sort  is  given,  it  may 
not  be  such  a  certificate  as  is  required  by  the  contract  as  a  condi- 
tion precedent  to  payment;  for,  as  shown  above,  where  a  certifi- 
cate of  certain  form  is  called  for,  a  certificate  in  materially  different 
form  is  not  sufficient. 

When  an  architect's  certificate  is  made  a  condition  precedent 
to  payment,  what  is  the  position  of  the  contractor  if  it  is  refused  ? 
If  it  is  refused  for  good  cause,  of  course,  the  contractor  cannot 
recover  the  payment  in  question.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  con- 
tractor has  faithfully  performed  his  part  of  the  contract,  and  can 
show  that  a  certificate  was  refused  through  the  fraud  of  the  owner, 
then  the  failure  to  produce  a  certificate  will  be  excused,  and  the 
contractor  may  recover  in  spite  of  it.  Between  those  cases  where 
the  refusal  is  justified  and  those  where  it  is  fraudulent  are  the  cases 
where  the  refusal  is  neither  justified  nor  fraudulent,  but  unreason- 
able. It  is  often  stated  that  where  the  refusal  is  unreasonable  as 


343 


30  LEGAL  RELATIONS 


well  as  where  it  is  collusive  or  fraudulent,  the  contractor  may  re- 
cover without  the  certificate,  after  proving,  of  course,  the  unreason- 
able character  of  the  refusal.  Such  is  the  law  in  some  states.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  argued  that  the  agreement  of  the  parties  gives 
effect  to  thegranting  or  refusal  of  a  certificate  by  the  architect  chosen, 
and  that  it  changes  the  agreement  to  undo  the  effect  of  his  decision 
merely  because  to  a  judge  or  to  a  jury  that  decision  appears  un- 
reasonable. It  has  accordingly  been  held  in  some  jurisdictions 
that  nothing  short  of  fraud  will  excuse  the  non-production  of  the 
certificate.  The  authorities  are  not  uniform  on  the  question 
whether  fraud  by  the  architect  alone  excuses  non -production  of 
the  certificate  or  whether  fraud  is  an  excuse  only  if  the  owner 
participates  in  it. 

The  contract  may  provide  that  the  work  shall  be  done  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  architect,  and  that  his  certificates  shall  be  given 
only  when  he  is  satisfied  with  the  work.  The  effect  given  to  such 
a  contract  is  different  in  different  jurisdictions.  The  point  of  dif- 
ference is  on  the  question  whether  the  contractor  is  bound  to  satisfy 
the  peculiar  tests  and  opinions  of  the  architect  specified,  or  whether 
such  work  as  would  satisfy  a  reasonable  man  in  the  architect's 
position  would  be  sufficient,  so  that  any  refusal  of  a  certificate  un- 
der these  circumstances  would  be  regarded  as  merely  whimsical 
and  unreasonable,  and  so  in  some  jurisdictions  not  to  prevent  the 
contractor's  recovery. 

The  contractor  may  also  recover  payment  without  producing 
the  certificate  which  was  made  a  condition  precedent,  if  the  owner 
has  waived  his  right  to  insist  upon  the  condition.  A  California 
case  held  that  where  a  building  had  been  completed  and  occupied 
apparently  without  objection  from  the  architect  or  owner,  although 
no  certificates  had  been  given,  the  occupancy  was  evidence  that  the 
owners  waived  the  requirement  of  a  certificate  and  payment  was 
due  on  the  contract.  In  a  Wisconsin  case  it  was  held  that  pay- 
ment of  50  per  cent  of  the  price  without  demanding  the  certificate 
was  a  waiver  of  the  certificate  as  to  that  part  and  also  as  to  the 
other  part,  unless  notice  had  been  given  that  the  certificate  would 
be  required  for  the  remainder  of  the  work.  Of  course  each  of 
these  cases  was  determined  on  the  special  circumstances  under 
which  it  arose.  It  is  certain  that  occupancy  alone  does  not  neces- 


344 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  31 

sarily  constitute  a  waiver  of  the  condition  as  to  the  certificate. 
The  question  of  waiver  of  this  condition  is  subject  to  the  ordinary- 
considerations  of  the  law  upon  that  subject. 

It  is  generally  held  that  if  by  the  death  of  the  architect  it  be- 
comes impossible  to  procure  the  certificate  the  non -production  will 
not  prevent  recovery  by  the  contractor. 

The  next  question  that  arises  is  as  to  the  effect  of  the  certifi- 
cate when  once  given.  It  is  not  finally  binding. on  the  parties  in 
such  a  manner  that  its  findings  cannot  be  contradicted,  unless  the 
provisions  of  the  contract  render  the  certificate  of  binding  effect. 
As  the  certificate  depends  on  the  contract  for  its  effect  it  can  have 
force  only  to  the  extent  therein  provided  for,  and  a  certificate  pre- 
tendino-  to  settle  matters  not  left  to  the  architect's  decision  is  in- 

O 

effective  as  to  such  matters. 

Even  after  a  certificate  has  been  given  which  according  to 
the  contract  is  finally  binding  on  the  parties,  it  may  be  impeached 
on  various  grounds  so  as  not  to  bind  the  owner  to  pay  for  the  work 
certified  to.  Fraud  or  mistake  are  generally  grounds  for  avoiding 
it.  The  wilful  disregard  by  the  architect  of  his  duty  has  been  held 
a  ground  for  avoiding  the  certificate;  as  has  the  concealment  of 
defects  by  the  builder,  and  collusion  between  the  contractor  and 
one  of  the  parties.  As  to  just  what  facts  constitute  a  ground  for 
disregarding  the  certificate,  the  law  differs  in  the  different  states. 
The  law  in  some  states  is  that  if  an  architect  gives  a  certificate  for 
work  which  subsequently  shows  imperfections  which  have  been 
concealed  from  th.e  architect  and  which  he  could  not  have  discovered 
by  the  use  of  reasonable  care  in  inspection,  such  certificate  does 
not  waive  such  imperfections,  and  the  owner  need  not  pay  the  full 
contract  or  certificate  price  for  such  work.  The  law  in  other  states, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  that  nothing  short  of  fraud  or  collusion  be- 
tween the  contractor  and  the  architect  will  excuse  the  owner  from 
payment  according  to  the  certificate.  Some  states  even  go  so  far 
as  to  say  that  even  fraud  will  not  excuse  the  owner.  In  such  cases, 
however,  the  owner  would  have  a  claim  against  the  architect  for 
his  loss.  Of  course  each  case  depends  on  the  wording  of  the  con- 
tract. Where  under  the  contract  the  certificate  is  merely  an  ex- 
pression of  the  architect's  opinion  that  the  work  is  in  compliance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  contract,  such  certificate  cannot  be  con- 


345 


82  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

elusive  evidence  of  the  performance  of  the  contract.  The  question 
can  arise  only  under  contracts  which  provide  that  each  party  shall 
.  be  bound  by  the  certificate.  Where  on  any  ground  the  certificate 
can  be  disregarded,  the  owner  is -enabled  to  make  a  claim  for  de- 
fects or  omissions  which  would  be  excluded  were  he  bound  by  the 
certificate.  The  fact  that  the  work  certified  to  is  not  entirely  com- 
pleted, or  that  the  architect  has  estimated  the  work  done  pursuant 
to  the  contract  as  less  than  the  work  actually  done,  or  made  a  mere 
mistake  or  error  in  judgment,  does  not  constitute  fraud  vitiating 
the  certificate,  or  raise  a  valid  ground  for  impeachment.  There 
may  therefore  be  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  architect  in  giving 
a  certificate  which  would  give  rise  to  a  right  of  action  against  him 
on  the  part  of  the  owner,  but  which  would  not  affect  the  binding 
nature  of  the  certificate;  for  the  architect  would  be  responsible  to 
his  employer  for  his  failure  to  use  care  and  skill  in  giving  the  cer- 
tificate as  in  other  parts  of  his  work. 

To  resume  the  subjects  last  treated:  The  architect's  certifi- 
cate has,  as  between  owner  and  contractor,  whatever  force  is  as- 
signed to  it  by  their  contract;  if  they  have  made  it  merely  a  con- 
dition precedent  to  payment,  then  it  is  important  only  to  entitle 
the  contractor  to  recover,  and  he  may  even  recover  without  it  under 
certain  circumstances  varying  in  different  jurisdictions;  the  certi- 
ficate would  have  no  further  effect  in  binding  the  parties,  and 
would  be  only  prima  facie  evidence  of  the  facts  stated  in  it;  it 
could  be  contradicted  by  the  owner,  if,  for  instance  he  claimed 
damages  for  defects  the  existence  of  which  was  inconsistent  with 
the  certificate.  If,  however,  the  parties  have  agreed  to  be  bound 

Jr  o 

by  the  certificate,  then  the  owner  could  not  recover  in  such  a  case 
unless  he  was  prepared  to  show  that  there  were  grounds  for  disre- 
garding the  certificate,  as  above  stated. 

A  question  might  arise  as  to  an  architect's  power  to  withdraw 
or  to  alter  a  certificate  once  given.  If  there  were  such  cause  as 
would  furnish  ground  for  disregarding  the  certificate,  such  as  a 
fraudulent  concealment  .from  the  architect,  clearly  he  should  be  at 
liberty  to  withdraw  it.  Should  the  architect,  however,  attempt  to 
withdraw  or  alter  a  certificate  merely  to  correct  his  own  mistake, 
and  should  the  contractor  refuse  to  submit  to  the  desired  change, 
the  architect  would  be  put  in  an  awkward  position.  The  certificate 


346 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  33 


given  would  be  sufficient  under  the  contract  to  fix  the  rights  of  the 
parties,  and  there  would  be  no  ground  for  setting  it  aside.  For 
his  own  negligence  he  would  be  answerable  to  the  owner;  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  ground  on  which  he  could  insist  on  a  return 
of  the  certificate. 

Where  the  certificate  is  based  on  measurements,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  with  interim  certificates,  it  would  seem  that  the 
contractor  has  a  right  to  be  notified  and  to  be  present  at  the  taking 
of  such  measurements  even  though  it  is  not  expressly  provided 
for  in  the  contract.  As  the  courts  are  not  unanimous  upon  the 
question  of  the  necessity  of  such  notice,  it  would  be  well,  although 
not  in  all  cases  legally  obligatory,  for  the  architect,  whenever  he 
knows  there  is  or  may  be  a  misunderstanding  between  the  parties, 
to  give  them  opportunity  to  be  heard  before  his  decision. 

As  to  the  signing  of  certificates  where  a  firm  of  architects 
are  employed,  the  signature  of  a  certificate  should  of  course  be  in 
the  firm  name.  Whether  one  partner  has  power  to  sign  is  an 
ordinary  question  of  the  law  of  agency  as  applied  to  the  subject 
of  partnership.  It  would  seem  that  a  partner  who  had  charge  of 
the  work  undoubtedly  has  such  authority.  If  the  various  mem- 
bers of  the  firm  have  participated  in  the  work  it  would  of  course 
be  only  prudent  that  all  should  be  consulted  and  expressly  author- 
ize the  issuance  of  the  certificate. 

The  subject  of  the  architect's  liability  to  the  contractor  for 
unjustly  refusing  to  give  a  certificate  is  treated  under  the  heading 
"  Liability  ". 

As  Regards  the  Settlement  of  Disputes.  As  already  shown, 
an  agreement  between  owner  and  contractor  that  the  architect's 
certificate  shall  be  conclusive  between  them  is  binding,  and  under 
such  an  agreement  the  architect's  certificate  can  be  disregarded 
only  on  certain  grounds.  The  building  agreement  may  in  like 
manner  give  binding  effect  to  the  architect's  determination  of 
various  matters,  and  such  agreement  may  be  binding  upon  the 
parties.  In  connection  with  such  agreements,  however,  the  legal 
principles  before  stated  in  connection  with  arbitration  clauses  (un- 
der the  heading  "Legality  of  Contract")  is  important.  Under 
the  law  as  there  stated,  general  provisions  for  arbitration  of  dis- 
puted points  are  not  binding.  The  proper  way  of  drawing  these 


347 


S4  LEGAL  EELATIONS 

clausess  for  the  settlement  of  disputed  matters  is  to  make  the  de- 
cision of  the  architect  a  condition  precedent  to  any  action  upon  a 
disputed  point.  The  decision  of  the  architect  may  then  be  made 
conclusive  upon  both  parties,  and  in  accordance  with  the  intention 
of  the  parties  will  be  enforced  by  a  court. 

Wherever  the  architect  acts  as  referee  to  determine  matters 
in  dispute  he  should  of  course  act  with  impartial  justice  towards 
the  parties.  As  he  is  employed  and  paid  by  the  owner,  and  as  his 
functions  under  the  building  contract  are  largely  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  the  owner's  interest,  it  may  be  somewhat  difficult  for 
him  to  take  an  unbiased  attitude.  His  position  is  in  fact  anomal- 
ous. Engaged  and  paid  by  the  owner,  often  with  a  personal  interest 
to  keep  the  cost  within  fixed  limits,  looking  chiefly  after  the  inter- 
ests of  the  owner,  for  whom  he  may  be  for  some  purposes  the  agent, 
he  is  nevertheless  called  upon  to  weigh  certain  matters  with  a  fair 
and  undiscriminating  regard  for  the  rights  both  of  the  owner  and 
of  another  person  having  directly  opposite  interests.  Yet  the  refer- 
ence of  disputed  points  to  .him  assumes  that  he  will  take  such  an 
impartial  attitude,  and  the  binding  force  of  his  decision  would  be 
destroyed  if  it  could  be  shown  that  he  had  decided  a  question  not 
with  judicial  impartiality,  but  as  a  partisan.  It  may  therefore  be 
said  that  in  his  function  of  adjusting  disputes,  the  architect  acts 
in  a  quasi-judicial  capacity. 

As  to  Inspection.  The  ordinary  contract  provides  that  the 
contractor  shall  furnish  proper  facilities  for  inspection  by  the  archi- 
tect, and  shall  replace  materials  and  take  down  work  condemned  by 
the  architect  as  unsound,  improper  or  failing  to  conform  to  the 
contract.  The  architect  is  under  obligations  to  the  owner  to  use 
reasonable  diligence  to  see  that  the  materials  used  and  the  work 
done  conform  to  the  plans  and  specifications,  and  will  be  liable  for 
damage  caused  by  failure  to  use  such  diligence.  Nevertheless  the 
matter  of  inspection  is  so  related  to  other  functions  of  the  architect, 
such  as  the  granting  of  certificates,  and  the  settlement  of  disputed 
points,  that  it  seems  the  architect  must,  in  many  cases  at  least,  act 
in  a  quasi-judicial  capacity,  rather  than  as  agent  for  the  owner,  in 
making  inspections. 

The  architect  should  require  the  contractor  to  pull  down  and 
to  do  over  any  work  visibly  not  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and 


348 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  35 


specifications.  The  exact  means  by  which  the  architect  may  make 
his  inspection  are  not  defined.  In  one  case  it  was  held  that  the 
architect  might  properly  drill  enough  holes  in  metal  columns 
reasonably  to  satisfy  himself  they  were  of  the  required  thickness. 
Of  course  any  method  of  inspection  which  substantially  injured 
or  weakened  the  work  would  not  under  ordinary  circumstances  be 
permissible.  Where  parts  of  the  work  are  concealed  before  the 
architect  has  had  an  opportunity  to  inspect  them,  assuming  that 
the  architect  was  properly  performing  his  duty  of  inspecting  and 
that  such  concealment  when  made  was  a  necessary  part  of  the 
contractor's  work,  it  would  seem  that  the  architect  could  have  the 
covered  part  removed  so  that  he  may  inspect  the  interior.  If  this 
interior  should  prove  to  be  made  of  poorer  material  or  workman- 
ship than  that  called  for  by  the  contract,  the  architect  might  order 
it  removed  and  replaced  correctly,  and  the  cost  of  the  tearing  down 
for  inspection,  the  removal,  and  the  replacing  should  all  be  paid 
for  by  the  contractor.  But  if  the  interior  proved  to  be  according 
to  the  contract,  it  would  seem  that  the  owner  should  pay  the  cost 
of  the  tearing  down  and  rebuilding,  and  that  allowance  for  any 
delay  caused  thereby  should  be  made  to  the  contractor.  But  when 
the  architect  delays  or  is  remiss  in  his  inspection  or  in  making 
objections  to  the  work  or  material,  and  in  consequence  thereof 
parts  of  the  work  or  material  are  concealed  without  any  wrong  in- 
tent on  the  part  of  the  contractor,  but  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
the  work,  then  it  would  seem  that  the  architect  should  bear  the 
expense  of  removing  the  concealing  parts  even  when  the  concealed 
parts  are  not  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifications. 
Again,  it  seems  that  if  the  contractor  concealed  part  of  his  work 
for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  inspection  of  it,  and  such  concealment 
was  in  no  way  due  to  wrongful  delay  in  inspection  by  the  archi- 
tect, then  the  contractor  should  pay  the  cost  of  tearing  down,  re- 
moving and  replacing  the  concealing  parts,  even  though  the  in- 
terior proved  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifications. 
In  short,  the  builder  must  give  the  architect  a  reasonable  oppor- 
tunity to  inspect  the  work  and  materials,  and  the  architect  on  his 
part  must  use  his  right  of  inspection  within  a  reasonable  time,  and 
in  a  reasonable  manner. 


349 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


In  view  of  the  above  observations  it  is  desirable  to  insert  in 
the  contract  a  provision  that  the  inspection  of  work  which  cannot 
be  examined  properly  during  the  architect's  ordinary  visits  of 
supervision,  shall  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor  on  the 
demand  of  the  architect. 

As  to  Other  Powers  Under  the  Building  Contract.  Wher- 
ever any  act  of  the  architect  has  by  the  building  contract  been 
given  a  certain  force  as  regards  owner  and  builder,  the  architect 
must  be  careful  to  make  his  action  exactly  like  that  described 
in  the  contract  in  order  that  the  agreed  force  may  attach  to  it. 
Whatever  authority  or  power  is  given  the  architect  is  strictly  con- 
strued by  the  courts;  that  is,  the  architect  must  exercise  his  au- 
thority or  power  strictly  in  the  manner  provided  therefor  in  the 
contract,  and  if  he  exercises  it  in  any  other  manner,  it  is  not  bind- 
ing on  the  other  parties.  For  example,  an  architect  who  may  by 
the  contract  give  written  orders  for  extras  or  for  variations  from 
the  contract,  has  no  authority  to  give  oral  orders,  and  the  o\vner 
will  not  be  bound  by  any  such  oral  orders.  What  constitutes  a 
written  order  for  variations  from. the  contract  is  often  a  very  diffi- 
cult question  to  determine,  Some  courts  hold  that  detailed  plans 
are  written  orders  for  variations  from  the  contract  as  represented 
by  general  plans,  while  other  courts  hold  that  they  are  not  written 
orders  within  the  meaning  of  the  contract.  This  is  often  an  im- 
portant matter,  because  if  there  is  a  variance  between  the  general 
and  detailed  plans,  and  the  builder  constructs  according  to  the 
detailed  plans,  the  contract  having  been  made  to  construct  accord- 
ing to  the  general  drawings  or  plans,  and  the  architect  having  au- 
thority to  order  variations  by  written  orders  only,  then  the  builder 
cannot  recover  the  contract  price  unless  such  detailed  plans  are  con- 
sidered as  constituting  written  orders  within  the  meaning  of  the 
contract. 

Relation  of  the  Architect  to  the  Owner.  An  architect,  like 
any  other  professional  man,  impliedly  contracts  with  his  employer 
that  he  has  the  ordinary  skill,  knowledge,  and  judgment  possessed 
by  men  of  his  profession,  and  that  he  will  use  this  skill,  care  and 
judgment  in  the  interest  of  his  employer,  and  will  act  with  per- 
fect honesty.  If  legal  damage  arises  from  defects  in  the  plans  or 
specifications  which  are  the  result  of« failure  to  exercise  the  re- 


350 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  37 

quired  skill,  knowledge,  or  judgment,  the  architect  is  liable  to  the 
owner  for  such  damage.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that 
this  knowledge  and  skill  required  includes  the  knowledge  and 
skill  necessary  to  planning  buildings  or  parts  of  buildings  such 
as  those  planned  by  the  architect,  a  knowledge  of  the  qualities  and 
strength  of  materials  used  in  such  buildings,  the  weight  of  the 
structures,  the  relationship  of  the  various  operations  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  many  trades  represented  in  building,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  all  other  matters  directly  related  to  drawing  plans  and 
specifications. 

In  addition  to  this  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  na- 
ture, of  materials,  etc.,  an  architect  represents  himself  as  possessed 
of  a  knowledge  of  the  statutes,  ordinances,  and  laws  relating  to 
buildings  and  to  the  erection  of  buildings  of  the  place  where  the 
structure  is  to  be  located.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  he  would 
not  be  charged  with  knowledge  of  the  decisions  of  inspectors  or 
referees  in  regard  to  points  left  indefinite  by  the  statutes,  ordi- 
nances, or  building  laws  of  the  particular  locality,  unless  such  de- 
cisions are  in  the  court  or  public  records.  The  architect  is  like- 
wise liable  for  his  failure  to  use  reasonable  skill,  etc.,  in  any  re- 
spect in  which  he  acts  as  agent  for  the  owner.  In  an  action  to 
enforce  such  liability  what  constitutes  reasonable  care,  skill,  and 
judgment  is  a  question  of  fact  for  the  jury  to  determine.  Unless 
it  is  specifically  provided  otherwise,  the  architect  who  undertakes 
to  superintend  a  building  is  bound  not  only  to  furnish  proper 
plans,  but  to  see  that  the  structure  is  at  least  reasonably  well  con- 
structed, that  the  foundations  are  sufficiently  deep  and  otherwise 
protected  to  prevent  settling  or  cracking  of  the  walls,  that  the 
contractors  do  not  put  in  defective  workmanship  or  materials,  or 
make  material  variations  from  the  plans  and  specifications,  such 
as  a  competent  architect  using  the  requisite  care,  skill,  and  atten- 
tion would  detect  and  prevent,  or  detect  in  time  to  have  remedied. 
Where  the  architect  has  the  duty  merely  of  furnishing  plans 
and  specifications,  such  plans  and  specifications  must  be  reason- 
ably accurate  and  suitable.  The  architect  does  not  guarantee  that 
his  work  is  perfect  or  that  the  building  will  be  a  success,  he 
merely  contracts  that  they  will  be  as  near  perfect  and  successful 
as  the  average  competent  architect  would  make  them. 


351 


38  LEGAL  DELATIONS 

The  architect  is  held,  in  respect  to  loyalty  to  his  employer,  to 
the  rules  applicable  to  an  agent.  The  impropriety  of  his  having 
any  secret  financial  interest  in  the  work  has  been  spoken  of  under 
the  general  laws  of  agency. 

Inasmuch  as  the  contract  with  the  architect  is  for  personal 
service  demanding  skill  and  judgment,  the  contract  does  not  sur- 
vive the  architect  but  is  terminated  by  his  death.  Therefore  his 
executors  or  administrators  are  not  liable  for  the  failure  to  fulfill 
the  contract  caused  by  the  architect's  death. 

Inasmuch  as  the  architect  performs  a  personal  service,  one 
demanding  the  exercise  of  special  skill,  judgment  and  discretion, 
he  cannot,  in  the  absence  of  special  authority,  delegate  the  per- 
formance of  such  services  to  another  because  of  the  rule  of  law 
already  stated.  As  this  rule  does  not  apply  to  the  purely  minis- 
terial duties  of  an  architect,  such  as  measuring  or  draughting, 
these  latter  duties  may  be  delegated  even  in  the  absence  of  express 
authority. 

Architect  as  Agent  for  the  Owner.  The  architect  should  be 
extremely  careful  that  he  has  authority  from  the  owner  before  as- 
suming to  bind  him  in  any  way.  It  is  desirable  to  have  such 
authority  express  and  definite.  In  important  matters,  or  with  un- 
reliable clients,  written  authority  should  be  obtained.  The  mere  fact 
that  the  building  contract  provides  for  some  action  by  the  architect 
as  agent  of  the  owner,  may  be  evidence  of  authority  from  the  owner 
to  the  architect  to  take  such  action  on  the  owner's  behalf,  but  is 
not  conclusive  evidence  of  such  authority.  In  other  words,  if  the 
action  of  the  architect  which  is  contemplated  by  the  contract  is 
action  as  agent  of  the  owner,  then  the  architect  needs  authority 
from  the  owner  before  taking  such  action,  and  the  provision  of  the 
contract  may  not  be  enough  to  show  such  authority  to  have  been 
granted.  If,  however,  the  action  of  the  architect  contemplated  by 
the  building  contract  is  action  in  a  quasi- judicial  capacity,  no  au- 
thority from  the  owner  is  necessary  to  empower  the  architect  to 
take  such  action.  His  action  then  derives  its  force  not  from  the 
authority  of  the  owner  but  directly  from  the  contract  itself.  It  is 
sometimes  difficult,  as  has  already  been  seen,  to  tell  in  just  what 
capacity  the  architect  acts  in  a  given  function,  and  considerable 
caution  is  necessary  on  his  part  not  to  assume  an  authority  as  agent 


352 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  39 

which  has  not  been  granted,  and  so  render  himself  liable  without 
so  intending.  To  illustrate  a  function  of  the  architect  often  pro- 
vided for  by  the  contract,  but  requiring  authority  by  the  owner, 
we  may  take  the  matter  of  ordering  extras  or  alterations,  where 
such  ordering  is  provided  for  by  the  contract  between  owner  and 
contractor. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  ordinary  limits  of  the  architect's 
powers,  attention  is  called  to  certain  acts  for  which  he  is  not  em- 
powered. In  the  absence  of  special  authority,  the  architect  has  no 
authority  to  modify  the  building  contract  or  alter  plans  or  specifica- 
tions, to  extend  the  time  for  completion,  to  change  the  original 
contract,  to  bind  his  employer  for  -extra,  work,  to  accept  an  inferior 
class  of  work,  to  waive  an  agreement  by  the  owner  as  to  the  terms 
•of  payment,  to  excuse  the  contractor  from  any  of  the  provisions  of 
the  contract,  to  employ  another  to  do  work  which  the  contractor 
has  undertaken,  to  substitute  another  for  the  original  contractor 
in  the  performance  of  the  work  or  the  payment  therefor,  to  super- 
vise the  letting  of  sub-contracts  and  the  employment  of  workmen, 
or  to  consider,  in  making  up  his  statement  of  the  accounts  between 
the  owner  and  architect,  any  accounts  outstanding  in  other  matters 
between  the  parties.  The  architect  cannot,  without  express 
authority,  bind  the  owner  to  pay  for  work  or  materials.  He  is  not 
the  owner's  agent  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  notice  of  an  assign- 
ment of  payments  due  from  the  owner. 

Where  the  architect  is  for  any  purpose  the  agent  of  the  owner, 
there  will,  according  to  the  general  rule  of  agency,  be  various  im- 
plied powers  necessary  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  agency. 
The  extent  of  these  will  vary  with  the  facts  of  each  case.  If  the 
architect  acts  as  superintendent  of  construction,  the  powers  may 
be  quite  extensive.  As  circumstances  may  enlarge  an  agent's 
powers,  an  architect  might  in  an  emergency  be  authorized  to  take 
extraordinary  steps  for  the  protection  of  the  owner's  rights  or 
property. 

In  general,  it  may  be  repeated,  the  architect  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  exceed  his  powers,  and  wherever  practicable  should  have 
his  authority  definitely  stated  in  writing.  One  regard  in  which 
architects  sometimes  exceed  their  powers  may  be  especially  men- 
tioned; that  of  incurring  unnecessary  expense  for  artistic  reasons. 


353 


40  LEGAL  KELATIONS 

Although  an  architect  may  have  authority  in  a  given  case  to  bind 
the  owner  in  ordering  necessary  materials,  furnishings  or  extras, 
he  is  not  necessarily  justified  in  increasing  the  expense  therefor, 
on  grounds  of  taste. 

Contractor's  Relation  to  the  Architect.  By  the  ordinary 
building  contract,  the  contractor  enters  into  obligations  with  the 
owner  only.  To  the  architect,  who  is  not  a  party  to  the  contract,  the 
contractor  owes  no  contractual  duties  which  the  architect  may  en- 
force in  law  or  in  equity.  However,  by  the  contract  it  may  become 
the  builder's  duty  to  the  owner  to  obey  the  architect's  instructions, 
to  do  the  work  to  his  satisfaction,  and  the  like.  These  duties  of 
the  builder  can  be  enforced  only  by  the  owner.  Therefore,  accord- 
ing to  the  rights  of  the  owner,  the  architect  may  be  said  to  be 
entitled  to  obedience  as  provided  in  the  contract. 

Architect's  Duty  Toward  the  Contractor.  Although  the 
architect  is  employed  by  the  owner  he  must  act  fairly  and  honestly 
toward  the  contractor.  This  of  course  precludes  any  attempt  to 
overreach  the  contractor,  or  any  secret  arrangement  with  the  owner 
to  deprive  the  contractor  of  any  money  justly  due  him. 

Thus  an  architect  has  been  held  liable  to  the  builder  for  dam- 
ages sustained  by  him  by  reason  of  a  fraudulent  refusal  to  issue 
the  certificate  made  essential  by  the  contract.  The  architect  who 
acts  as  a  superintendent  or  arbitrator  is  supposed  to  act  as  an  im- 
partial man  of  science.  Where  it  is  shown  that  the  architect  is 
personally  interested  in  favoring  the  owner  at  the  expense  of  the 
builder,  or  vice  versa,  as  where  the  architect  guaranteed  or  merely 
assured  the  owner  that  the  whole  cost  of  building  would  be  below 
a  certain  sum,  it  has  been  held  that  his  awards  should  be  set  aside 
if  they  are  unjust,  in  spite  of  the  agreement  that  his  decision  shall 
be  final  and  conclusive  on  all  parties. 

It  is  the  architect's  duty  to  interpret  his  plans  and  specifica- 
tions when  such  interpretation  is  requested  by  the  contractor. 

Discrepancy  in  Plans.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  details 
in  the  plans  do  not  agree  with  the  specifications  prepared  by  the 
architect  to  go  writh  the  plans,  or  the  small  scale  drawings  do  not 
agree  with  the  detail  drawings.  "When  this  occurs  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  which — the  plans  or  specifications,  the  small  scale 
drawings  or  the  detail  drawings — shall  prevail.  This  question 


354 


LEGAL   RELATIONS  41 

arises  moot  frequently  after  work  has  been  performed  according  to 
the  plans  or  specifications,  the  small  scale  drawings  or  the  detail 
drawings,  and  the  other  side  claims  the  work  does  not  conform  to 
the  provisions  of  the  contract,  relying  on  conflicting  provisions 
elsewhere.  Then  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  which  is  con- 
trolling. Where  there  is  a  discrepancy  between  the  drawings  and 
specifications,  or  between  the  small  scale  drawings  and  the  detail 
drawings,  there  is  some  conflict  as  to  what  the  order  of  preference 
should  be.  The  more  general  rule,  however,  is  that  specifications 
take  precedence  over  drawings  and  detail  drawings  over  small  scale 
drawings.  This  rule  must  of  course  give  way  where  in  any  con- 
tract the  provisions  indicate  a  contrary  intention.  Where  there  is 
a  discrepancy  between  two  sets  of  drawings  of  equal  importance  it 
seems  well  settled  that  the  contractor  is  bound  only  by  that  set 
which  he  has  seen  and  on  which  he  has  based  his  estimates. 
Where  the  discrepancy  is  between  two  different  clauses  in  the 
specifications  the  facts  of  the  case  control;  the  question  is  decided 
on  common  sense  rather  than  on  technical  reasoning. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  such  questions. 

Limit  of  Cost.  Where  nothing  is  said  about  fences,  terraces, 
grounds  or  other  unusual  items,  the  limit  of  cost  given  the  archi- 
tect will  be  supposed  to  cover  only  the  bare  cost  of  building,  usu- 
ally without  screens,  outside  windows,  or  any  grading  or  planting 
beyond  the  smoothing  of  the  ground  within  six  or  seven  feet  of  the 
building,  and  the  removal  of  the  surplus  gravel,  dirt  or  clay  from 
the  excavations  to  some  convenient  part  of  the  premises.  The  archi- 
tect's fees  and  the  expense  of  superintending  the  building  are  not 
regarded  as  a  part  of  the  estimated  cost.  It  is,  however,  far  safer 
here  as  elsewhere  to  have  a  distinct  understanding  between  the 
owner  and  architect. 

Any  estimate  by  the  architect  of  the  cost  can  be  approximate 
only,  because  the  cost  depends  on  so  many  matters  which  are  be- 
yond the  knowledge  of  .the  architect;  for  example,  combinations  of 
local  mechanics,  monopolies,  approaching  bankruptcy  of  the  builder, 
etc.  In  view  of  these  uncertainties  it  is  considered  unreasonable 
to  hold  the  architect  to  a  strict  compliance  with  the  owner's  wishes 
in  regard  to  cost,  and  the  owner  has  no  right  to  dismiss  the  archi- 
tect because  the  contractor's  bid  is  higher  than  the  limit  of  cost 


355 


42  LEGAL  KELATIONS 

given,  unless  such  bid  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  limit.  In  the 
event  of  a  moderate  excess  it  is  common  for  the  architect  to  aid 
the  owner  in  modifying  the  plans  so  as  to  come  within  the  limit 
without  making  any  extra  charges  for  such  aid.  As  to  what  is  a 
reasonable  or  unreasonable  excess  of  the  limit  fixed  there  is  no 
established  rule.  It  may,  however,  be  said  that  the  courts  are 
rather  lenient  to  the  architect  in  this  matter. 

There  are  two  ways  of  providing  for  an  excess  of  the  estimate 
over  the  limit  given.  One  is  to  provide  by  agreement  before  the 
work  is  begun  that  the  plans  may  be  returned  to  the  architect  and 
no  payment-  made  if  the  contractor's  estimate  is  more  than  25  per 
cent  in  excess  of  the  limit.  The  other- way  is  to  make  it  a  condi- 
tion precedent  to  acceptance  of  the  plans  that  the  contractor's  price 
shall  not  be  above  a  certain  amount.  It  is  strongly  recommended 
that  one  of  these  methods  should  be  adopted. 

Liability  of  the  Architect.  It  has  already  been  stated  that 
an  architect  impliedly  represents  himself  to  be  possessed  of  the 
skill  and  knowledge  possessed  by  the  average  architect  in  that  lo- 
cality. I£  in  fact  he  does  not  possess  such  skill  and  knowledge, 
and  loss  results  to  his  employer  because  of  the  lack  of  such  skill 
and  judgment,  the  architect  is  liable  to  his  employer  for  such  loss. 
.For  a  similar  reason  and  in  a  similar  way  the  architect  is  liable 
for  damage  resulting  from  his  failure  to  use  care,  diligence  and 
judgment  in  the  performance  of  his  duties.  The  mere  fact,  how- 
ever, that  the  plans,  structure,  or  work  are  not  absolutely  accurate 
or  successful  does  not  make  the  architect  liable  to  the  owner  for 
damage  resulting  therefrom,  for  the  architect  does  not  guarantee 
absolute  accuracy,  perfection,  or  success.  It  is  only  when  such 
inaccuracy  or  failure  is  caused  by  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the 
architect  to  have  and  to  exercise  the  skill,  knowledge,  or  judgment 
he  represents  himself  as  having,  that  the  architect  is  liable.  The 
damage  for  which  the  architect  may  become  liable  by  reason  of  his 
failure  to  possess  or  to  use  the  usual  skill,  etc.,  may  be  for  the  in- 
creased cost  of  the  building  due  to  remedying  his  mistakes,  or  it 
may  be  for  damage  directly  caused  by  the  defects  in  other  ways. 
The  fact  that  the  owner  was  present  while  the  work  was  being 
performed  does  not  excuse  any  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  architect. 
The  owner  has  a  right  to  refy  on  the  architect's  professional  knowl- 


356 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  43 


edge  and  skill;  and  if  be  is  so  negligent  as  to  allow  a  building  or 
a  part  of  it  to  be  constructed  in  a  dangerous  or  doubtful  manner, 
he  is  not  excused  from  the  liability  incurred  by  such  neglect  by 
the  fact  that  such  construction  was  permitted  at  the  request  of  the 
owner.  Only  a  valid  specific  agreement  between  the  architect  and 
the  owner  to  the  effect  that  the  owner  would  hold  the  architect 
excused  from  any  liability  to  him  arising  from  such  dangerous  or 
doubtful  construction,  would  relieve  the  architect  of  liability  to 
the  owner.  It  is  needless  to  remark  that  such  an  agreement 
would  be  an  extremely  dangerous  one  for  an  owner  to  make. 

Where  an  architect  undertakes  to  superintend  construction  he 
is  liable  to  the  owner  for  any  damage  resulting  from  material 
variation  from  the  plans  and  specifications,  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
tractor, from  poor  construction,  or  the  use  of  poor  material,  if  an 
architect  using  the  ordinary  care  and  skill  usually  bestowed  by 
architects  acting  in  such  a  capacity,  would  have  prevented  the  im- 
proper work,  or  detected  it  in  time  to  have  it  remedied.  Under  this 
rule  an  architect  is  held  not  to  be  liable  for  all  the  minor  details  of 
the  work,  as  in  one  case  for  the  failure  of  the  builder  to  mortise 
joints  with  pegs  where  the  joints  were  in  the  roof  of  the  porch. 

Where  an  architect  acts  as  superintendent  of  construction, 
he  is  not,  of  course,  liable  for  loss  arising  solely  from  the  neg- 
ligence or  incapacity  of  the  contractor,  unless  the  architect  is 
himself  in  fault,  for  he  would  be  answerable 'for  the  fault  of  an- 
another  only  on  the  ground  of  agency,  and  the  contractor  is  not 
the  architect's  agent.  Wherever  the  duties  of  an  architect  are  en- 
larged by  a  special  agency  in  any  case,  he  is  liable  for  failure  of  skill, 
care,  or  fidelity  in  such  enlarged  duties.  The  fact  that  the  con- 
tractor also  is  liable  for  damages  resulting  from  poor  construction 
does  not  relieve  the  architect  from  liability  arising  from  his  own 
neglect,  nor  does  it  necessarily  give  the  architect  the  right  to  reim- 
bursement from  the  contractor.  They  may  both  be  liable  for  the 
full  amount  of  the  damage,  and  the  owner  may  elect  whether  to 
sue  the  architect  or  the  contractor  or  both  together. 

If  the  architect  on  his  own  responsibility,  without  authority 
from  the  owner  or  without  claiming  to  act  as  his  agent,  orders 
extra  work,  he  is  personally  liable  for  such  work. 


357 


44  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

If  an  architect  is  negligent  in  his  duties,  and  as  a  result  an 
accident  occurs  in  a  building  after  completion,  by  which  some 
stranger  suffers  damage,  the  architect  would  probably  never  be 
held  liable  to  the  stranger.  The  architect's  sole  legal  duty  in  the 
premises  seems  to  be  toward  the  owner,  to  whom  only  he  is  liable 
for  failure  to  do  proper  work. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  architect  may  in  the  course  of  his  work 
come  under  legal  duties  to  others  than  the  contractor  and  owner, 
the  breach  of  which  may  render  him  legally  liable.  For  instance, 
an  architect,  having  general  charge  and  direction  of  the  work, 
adopted  a  method  of  construction  which  did  not  provide  adequate 
support,  a  defect  which  resulted  in  injury  to  a  workman,  and  the 
architect  was  held  liable  to  the  injured  man.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  cases  is  that  in  making  plans  for  a  building  the  architect 
is  in  effect  an  independent  contractor  whose  .sole  duty  is  to  his  em- 
ployer. In  the  latter  case,  however,  the  architect  was  acting  as 
the  owner's  agent  in  superintending  construction,  and  as  agent 
was  charged  with,  his  principal's  duty  to  provide  safe  ways  and 
works  for  those  engaged  in  the  construction.  It  would  extend  this 
article  too  far  to  consider  all  the  duties  which  the  owner  may  owe 
to  third  parties,  and  which,  in  special  cases  where  the  architect 
acts  as  agent  for  the  owner,  may  affect  the  architect  himself. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  where  one  undertakes  to  act  as  agent  it  is 
incumbent  upon  him  to  act  with  regard  to  the  rights  of  third  parties 
against  his  principal  in  the  premises.  The  express  direction  of  his 
principal  will  not  excuse  the  agent  for  so  acting  in  his  agency  as 
to  cause  legal  injury  to  third  parties. 

A  word  should  be  added  under  this  heading  about  the  possibil- 
ity of  liability  for  the  acts  of  others.  Where  some  assistant  causes 
damage  by  his  negligence  or  wrongdoing,  if  he  can  be  shown  to  be 
the  agent  of  the  architect,  the  latter  is  liable,  according  to  the  gen- 
eral rule  of  agency. 

It  has  been  held  that  an  architect  is  liable  to  the  contractor  if 
the  architect  fraudulently  refuses  to  give  a  certificate  to  the  con- 
tractor. But  a  refusal  to  grant  a  certificate  where  one  is  due, 
which  arises  only  from  a  lack  of  care  or  skill,  does  not  render  the 
architect  liable  to  the  contractor.  If  the  architect's  fraud  is  in 


358 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  45 


collusion  with  the  owner,  then  both  may  be  sued  together  by  the 
contractor,  or  either  may  be  sued  separately. 

Public  Officials.  An  architect,  acting  as  a  public  official  as, 
for  instance,  city  architect,  will,  of  course,  be  in  a  different 
position  from  an  architect  in  private  practice.  An  architect  em- 
ployed .in  a  public  capacity  for  a  regular  salary  is  probably  not 
liable  for  lack  of  skill  or  care.  It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
article  to  consider  in  any  detail  the  positions  into  which,  as  a  pub- 
lic officer,  an  architect  might  come.  Upon  undertaking  such  work, 
a  man  will,  of  course,  consider  the  nature  and  responsibilities  of 
the  office. 

INVITATIONS  TO  COMPETE. 

When  a  person,  public  body,  or  corporation  advertises  inviting 
architects  to  send  in  competitive  designs,  all  designs  sent  in  should 
conform  exactly  to  the  terms  of  the  invitation  sent  out.  If  this  is 
not  done  the  design  submitted  is  not  entitled  to  consideration. 
The  common  form  of  advertisement  for  designs,  and  the  submis- 
sion of  designs  conforming  with  the  terms  of  the  advertisement, 
do  not  constitute  a  contract.  The  advertisement  is  merely  a  re- 
quest for  offers.  The  submission  of  the  design  is  an  offer,  and 
becomes  binding  only  on  acceptance  by  the  party  advertising. 
Although  it  seems  that  this  party  is  not  bound  to  accept  the  design 
representing  lowest  bid,  it  is  very  desirable  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, to  put  into  the  advertisement  a  clause  reserving  the  right  to 
reject  any  or  all  designs  submitted.  Of  course  where  the  adver- 
tisement is  for  bids  for  public  work,  if  a  statute  or  city  ordinance 
required  that  the  work  be  awarded  to  the  lowest  bidder,  then  the 
party  making  the  lowest  bid  may  enforce  his  right  to  the  award. 
A  request  for  plans  is,  of  course,  unlikely  to  come  within  such  a 
statute.  An  invitation  to  compete  may,  however,  be  made  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  constitute  an  offer,  and  give  some  one  of  the  com- 
petitors a  right  to  hold  the  persons  making  the  offer  bound  by  a 
contract.  For  this  purpose,  as  has  already  been  shown,  the  plans 
must  exactly  correspond  with  all  terms  of  the  offer. 

Ownership  of  Plans.  In  the  absence  of  any  agreement  as  to 
the  ownership  of  plans,  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  general  state- 
ment as  to  the  law  on  that  point,  Whether  the  property  in  the 


359 


46  LEGAL  KELATIONS 


plans  passes  to  the  employer,  or  whether,  on  the  analogy  of  notes 
made  by  other  professional  men,  such  as  physicians  and  lawyers, 
the  property  in  the  plans  remains  in  the  architect,  the  right  to  the 
use  and  possession  during  the  construction  being  in  the  builder,  is 
a  question  to  be  answered  only  upon  examination  of  the  law  in 
each  jurisdiction.  The  tendency  of  the  lower  courts  of  the  differ- 
ent states  seems  to  be  toward  the  former  view.  It  is  however  said 
to  be  the  almost  universal  custom  in  England  and  the  United  States 
for  the  architect  to  retain  the  plans  after  the  completion  of  the 
structure.  And  it  is  now  customary  to  insert  in  the  building  con- 
tract a  stipulation  that  plans  shall  remain  the  property  of  the 
architect.  While  this  is  evidence  of  the  agreement  with  the  archi- 
tect to  the  same  effect,  it  would  seem  desirable  that  this  agreement 
be  expressly  made  between  the  two  persons  interested,  the  owner 
and  the  architect. 

However  doubtful  the  actual  ownership  of  the  architect's  plans 
may  be,  it  is  clear  that  until  they  are  published,  as  it  is  called,  that 
is,  given  out  by  the  architect  so  that  anyone  may  see  them,  no  one 
except  his  client  has  the  right  to  copy,  reproduce,  or  otherwise 
use  them,  without  the  architect's  permission.  This  right  of  the 
architect  not  to  have  his  plans  used  without  his  permission  ceases 
after  publication.  Whether  plans  have  been  published  is  a  ques- 
tion to  be  decided  on  the  facts  of  each  case,  but  it  is  clear  that  by 
selling  the  plans  outright  the  architect  loses  all  right  not  to  have 
them  used.  Where  plans  are  submitted  to  competition  for  a  cash 
prize,  it  has  been  held  that  the  plans  awarded  prizes  become  the 
property  of  the  party  inviting  the  competition.  Whether  or  not 
an  architect's  plans  or  drawings  of  a  building  may  be  copyrighted 
is  an  open  question. 

Compensation.  The  architect's  legal  right  to  compensation 
is,  of  course,  a  contract  right,  either  under  an  express  contract,  if 
one  exists,  or  under  an  implied  contract.  If  an  express  contract 
fixes  the  rate  of  compensation,  of  course  the  architect's  rights  are 
fixed  by  that.  If  there  is  an  express  contract  which  does  not  fix 
the  amount  of  compensation,  or  if  there  is  no  express  contract 
covering  the  employment,  the  architect's  right  is  to  charge  so  much 
as  his  services  are  reasonably  worth.  While  from  a  legal  point  of 
view  it  would  be  wiser  to  have  the  rate  of  compensation  settled  by 


360 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  47 

the  binding  agreement  of  the  parties,  it  is  probable  that  in  most 
cases  of  the  employment  of  an  architect,  the  matter  of  his  fees  is 
not  expressly  agreed  upon,  and  in  case  of  dispute  the  architect 
would  be  left  to  receive  under  the  implied  contract  what  his  serv- 
ices are  fairly  worth.  One  reason  for  this  practice  is  the  exist- 
ence of  a  customary  schedule  of  charges,  which  architects  are  ac- 
customed to  demand  and  to  receive  for  their  services.  This  schedule* 
is  framed  by  the  American  Institute  of  Architects.  The  influence 
of  this  schedule  on  the  question  of  compensation  is  an  impor- 
tant one. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  obvious  that  rules  made  by  a  body  of 
architects  cannot,  as  such,  bind  persons  employing  the  architects. 
These  schedule  rates  may,  however,  be  of  some  importance  in 
either  one  or  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  that  the  pay- 
ment of  these  schedule  rates  is  a  custom  which  must  be  taken  to 
have  been  in  the  minds  of  both  parties,  and  binding  upon  them  as 
a  part  of  their  contract.  Custom  may  be  thus  shown  for  the  pur- 
pose of  proving  a  term  of  contract,  provided  always  that  the  con- 
tract does  not  expressly  contradict  the  custom. 

Such  a  custom  must,  however,  be  reasonable;  and  courts  have 
been  of  opinion  that  schedules  similar  to  this  in  question  were  not, 
as  they  applied  to  various  cases,  reasonable.  Moreover,  the  cus- 
tom must  be  proved  to  have  been  known  to  both  parties  to  be  af- 
fected, either  by  showing  actual  knowledge  on  their  parts,  or  by 
showing  it  to  be  so  general  in  the  locality  that  the  inference  is 
irresistible  that  both  knew  it.  It  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
an  architect  whose  compensation  has  not  been  fixed  by  agreement, 
to  be  able  to  hold  his  employer  to  this  schedule,  and  therefore  im- 
portant to  bring  notice  of  the  schedule  home  to  the  employer.  For 
this  purpose  the  schedule  is  sometimes  printed  on  an  office  letter 
head,  and  several  of  these  letter  heads  used  in  early  correspondence 
before  work  on  plans  actually  begins.  From  a  lawyer's  standpoint 
this  is  but  a  makeshift  to  take  the  place  of  the  definite  understand- 
ing which  should  be  had. 

Even  if  the  schedule  is  not  admissible  in  evidence  as  showing 
a  customary  term  which  is  to  be  read  into  the  agreement  between 
architect  and  owner,  it  may  be  admissible  merely  to  show  what  is 


'See  Appendix  II. 


361 


48  LEGAL  RELATIONS 

reasonable  compensation.  This  is  obviously  quite  a  different  mat- 
ter from  proving  it  to  be  a  binding  clause  in  the  contract.  Other 
evidence  can  be  heard  to  contradict  that  furnished  by  the  schedule, 
and  the  result  in  a  litigated  case  would  be  doubtful. 

Unless  it  is  clearly  understood  that  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions are  to  be  submitted  subject  to  approval,  an  owner  by  con- 
tracting with  an  architect  for  plans  and  specifications  and  by 
receiving  them  makes  himself  liable  to  pay  the  architect  whether 
he  uses  the  plans  and  specifications  or  not.  Where,  however,  it  is 
understood  at  the  outset  that  the  plans  and  specifications  are  made 
conditional  on  the  approval  of  the  owner,  if  they  do  not  meet  with 
his  approval,  the  architect  cannot  recover  for  them.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  owner  should  give  the  architect  a  reason- 
able opportunity  to  alter  the  plans  and  specifications  so  as  to  meet 
his  wishes.  It  has  been  held  that  after  rejecting  and  returning 
the  plans  several  times,  the  owner  is  at  liberty  to  procure  plans 
elsewhere. 

Practical  Suggestions.  Before  drawing  plans  an  architect 
should  inspect  the  proposed  site,  and  determine  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  If  the  building  is  to  be  on  old  foundations,  he  should 
observe  these  foundations,  and  determine  their  strength.  If  im- 
portant he  should  ascertain  the  character  of  the  subsoil.  He  should 
also  note  any  adjoining  buildings,  and  the  effect  they  may  have 
upon  the  site  in  question.  He  should  inquire  of  the  owner  about 
any  easements,  or  rights  in  the  owner's  land,  which  other  persons 
may  have,  such  as  rights  of  way,  or  what  in  this  country  are  not 
common,  rights  of  light  and  air,  and  about  any  party-wall  agree- 
ment affecting  the  premises. 

The  plans  when  completed  should  (1)  conform  with  the  in- 
structions given  the  architect,  (2)  comply  with  all  laws  which  may 
be  applicable,  (3)  not  infringe  the  right  of  any  third  person,  (4)  be 
in  accordance  with  all  rules  of  the  architect's  science  and  art.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  employer's  mere  approval  will  not 
be  an  excuse  for  faults  of  which  the  employer  is  not  a  competent 
judge. 

In  regard  to  the  agreement  between  the  architect  and  his  em- 
ployer as  to  compensation,  and  as  to  powers  wThich  the  architect  is 
to  exercise  as  the  owner's  agent,  it  is  best  to  have  a  clear  agree- 


362 


LEGAL  KELATIONS  49 

ment  in  all  respects.  While  a  contract  made  by  word  of  mouth  is 
(aside  from  the  statute  of  frauds  or  other  provisions  of  law)  as  valid 
as  a  contract  in  writing,  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  precision,  af- 
fording a  certain  means  of  showing  what  the  agreement  was.  In 
all  transactions,  therefore,  in  which  there  is  any  possibility  of  dis- 
pute, it  is  desirable  to  have  communications  by  letter  rather  than 
by  word  of  mouth.  An  architect  should  make  a  practice  of  hav- 
ing business  communications  in  writing,  keeping  letter  press  or 
carbon  copies  of  all  letters  sent  out,  with  some  record  of  mailing, 
and  should  preserve  all  letters  addressed  to  him  bearing  on  his 
business. 

If  the  architect  is  to  act  as  the  agent  of  the  owner  in  making 
the  building  contract,  it  is  especially  necessary  to  have  his  exact 
powers  in  the  way  of  accepting  or  rejecting  offers  made  clear.  In 
advertising  for  bids,  the  right  should  be  reserved  to  reject  any  or 
all  offers. 

If  the  architect  has  power  to  make  the  building  contract  in 
behalf  of  his  employer,  he  should  use  great  caution  not  only  in 
choosing  a  contractor  but  also  in  his  dealing  with  the  successful 
and  the  unsuccessful  bidders  to  avoid  legal  complications.  Having 
first  made  it  clear,  by  reserving  the  right  to  reject  any  or  all  offers, 
that  he  is  merely  asking  for  offers,  and  not  himself  making  an 
offer  to  be  accepted  by  the  lowest  bidder,  it  may  be  well  to  make 
his  acceptance  of  the  chosen  offer  conditional  in  some  way  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances.  The  acceptance  may,  for  instance,  be 
upon  condition  that  a  satisfactory  contract  be  executed  within  a 
certain  time,  and  provision  may  also  be  made  for  a  bond  with 
sureties,  to  be  furnished  by  the  contractor  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
contract. 

Where  the  architect  is  entrusted  with  the  drawing  of  the  con- 
tract, he  may  find,  in  ordinary  cases,  that  the  "  Uniform  Contract" 
is  sufficient.  In  some  cases,  he  may  wish  to  modify  this  in  many 
ways  as  his  experience  dictates.  It  is  well  for  an  architect  to 
make  notes  on  forms  passing  under  his  notice  and  on  his  experience 
with  the  various  clauses  of  building  contracts.  The  libraries  will 
furnish  books  containing  model  agreements  which  will  be  found 
suggestive.  The  drawing  of  contracts  for  special  cases  is  essentially 
a  matter  calling  for  judgment  and  experience.  It  is  therefore 


50  LEGAL  RELATIONS 


impossible  to  give  any  directions  here  beyond  those  which  are  sug- 
gested in  various  parts  of  the  article.  In  general,  it  is  important 
in  drawing  a  contract  to  consider  carefully  whether  the  words  are 
so  clear  as  to  admit  of  only  one  interpretation.  Clearness  is  best 
secured  by  making  one  carefully  drawn  statement  of  a  point  rather 
than  by  repetition  in  various  forms  of  statement.  It  is  to  be  con- 
sidered whether  general  or  specific  words  will  best  serve  a  purpose. 
By  providing  that  a  contractor  shall  furnish  safe  appliances  the 
owner's  interests  will  generally  be  better  served  than  by  specifying 
the  kind  of  appliances  to  be  used.  If  the  kind  of  appliance  were 
specified,  then  the  risk  of  its  safety  would  be  transferred  to  the 
owner.  On  the  other  hand  where  the  object  is  to  prescribe  a  cer- 
tain material,  that  material  should  be  so  specifically  described  that 
no  other  will  come  within  the  description. 

Attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  a  building  could  be 
built,  and  a  contract  drawn,  on  a  very  different  plan  from  that  of 
the  "Uniform  Contract".  For  instance,  instead  of  a  contractor 
in  the  ordinary  way,  a  person  could  be  employed  to  purchase  sup- 
plies and  hire  labor  as  the  agent  of  the  owner,  receiving  a  salary 
or  a  lump  sum  for  the  work,  and  always  subject  to  the  owner's 
orders  in  every  respect.  Or  the  details  of  the  "  Uniform  Con- 
tract" may  be  much  altered;  for  instance,  the  certificate  of  the 
architect  may  be  placed  on  a  very  different  footing,  or  a  provision 
may  require  monthly  instalments  for  extras.  Many  other  possible 
changes  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  student. 

In  drawing  a  contract  one  should  be  careful  to  specify  just 
what  in  the  way  of  papers,  plans  and  drawings,  goes  to  make  up 
the  contract,  and  to  identify  and  refer  accurately  to  such  papers. 
The  provisions  for  interim  payments  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
assure  the  owner  of  having  always  a  sufficient  margin  between  the 
amount  paid  to  the  contractor  and  the  value  of  materials  and  labor 
furnished,  as  a  protection  in  case  of  difficulties  which  may  result 
in  an  unexpected  increase  of  expense  in  completing  the  work. 
Above  all,  do  not  blindly  use  printed  forms,  without  reading  and 
considering  all  printed  portions,  and  filling  in  all  necessary  blanks. 

During  the  progress  of  the  work  it  is  necessary  for  the  con- 
tractor's protection  that  the  premises  should  be  insured.  Other- 
wise, as  the  contract  is  clearly  an  entire  contract,  if  the  work  should 


LEGAL  RELATIONS  51 

be  destroyed,  lie  would  be  unable  to  recover  compensation  for  the 
portion  damaged.  The  "Uniform  Contract"  provides  for  insur- 
ance by  the  owner  in  the  names  of  owner  and  contractor. 

During  the  progress  of  the  work,  care  must  be  taken  in  mak- 
ing changes  in  the  contract  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  parties, 
and  to  leave  the  contract  in  ascertainable  and  proper  shape.  If 
the  contractor  is  excused  from  a  portion  of  the  work,  it  should  be 
clearly  understood  that  an  allowance  is  to  be  made  therefor.  If 
the  allowance  can  be  fixed  at  the  time,  a  source  of  possible  future 
dispute  will  be  avoided.  Changes  in  the  contract  should  be  made 
in  writing,  if  not  in  the  form  of  a  contract,  at  least  in  letters  ex- 
pressing the  agreement  of  both  parties.  The  common  saying  that 
"Silence  gives  consent",  if  relied  upon,  will  be  productive  of 
difficulties. 

An  architect  should  have  a  regular  system  of  bookkeeping 
which  will  enable  him  at  any  time  to  show  how  much  labor  of  his 
own  and  of  his  office  force  has  gone  into  any  matter.  Difficulties 
over  fees  cannot  be  foreseen,  and  the  office  system  should  provide 
for  such  contingencies  by  furnishing  all  the  material  needed  for 
recovery  on  a  quantum  meruit  if  necessary. 


365 


APPENDIX   I. 

THE  UNIFORM  CONTRACT. 

Form  of  contract  adopted  and  recommended  for  general  use,  by  the  American  Institute  of 

Architects  and  the  National  Association  of  Builders. 

Revised  1903. 


(^greemenf,  made  the 


in  the  year  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  .......................................................  .  ...............  by  and  between 


party  of  the  first  part  (hereinafter  designated  the  Contractor     ),  and. 


party  of  the  second  part  (hereinafter  designated  the  Owner     ). 

Witnesseth  that  the  Contractor   ,  in  consideration  of  the  agreements  herein  made  by  the 

Owner    ,  agree     with  the  said  Owner     as  follows : 

ARTICLE  I.    The  Contractor     shall  and  will  provide  all  the  materials  and  perform 
all  the  work  for  the 


as  shown  on  the  drawings  and  described  in  the  specifications  prepared  by 

Architect  ,  which  drawings  and  specifications  are  identified  by  the  signatures  of  the 
parties  hereto,  and  become  hereby  a  part  of  this  contract. 

ART.  II.  It  is  understood  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto  that  the 
work  included  in  this  contract  is  to  be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  said  Architect  , 

and  that decision  as  to  the  true  construction  and  meaning  of  the  drawings  and 

specifications  shall  be  final.  It  is  also  understood  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties 
hereto  that  such  additional  drawings  and  explanations. as  may  be  necessary  to  detail  and 
illustrate  the  work  to  be  done  are  to  be  furnished  by  said  Architect  ,  and  they  agree  to 
conform  to  and  abide  by  the  same  so  far  as  they  may  be  consistent  with  the  purpose  and 
intent  of  the  original  drawings  and  specifications  referred  to  in  Art.  I. 

It  is  further  understood  and  agreed  by  the  parties  hereto  that  any  and  all  drawings 
and  specifications  prepared  for  the  purposes  of  this  contract  by  the  said  Architect  are 

and  remain property,  and  that  all  charges  for  the  use  of  the  same,  and  for  the 

services  of  said  Architect     ,  are  to  be  paid  by  the  said  owner. 

ART.  III.  No  alterations  shall  be  made  in  the  work  except  upon  written  order  of 
the  Architect  ;  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  the  Owner  or  allowed  by  the  Contractor  by 
virtue  of  such  alterations  to  be  stated  in  said  order.  Should  the  Owner  and  Contractor 
not  agree  as  to  amount  to  be  paid  or  allowed,  the  work  shall  go  on  under  the  order 
required  above,  and  in  case  of  failure  to  agree,  the  determination  of  said  amount  shall  be 
referred  to  arbitration,  as  provided  for  in  Art.  XII  of  this  contract. 

ART.  IV.  The  Contractor  shall  provide  sufficient,  safe  and  proper  facilities  at  all 
times  for  the  inspection  of  the  work  by  the  Architect  or authorized  repre- 
sentatives; shall,  within  twenty-four  hours  after  receiving  written  notice  from  the  Archi- 
tect to  that  effect,  proceed  to  remove  from  the  grounds  or  buildings  all  materials  con- 
demned by ...whether  worked  or  unworked,  and  to  take  down  all  portions  of  the 

work  which  the  Architect  shall  by  like  written  notice  condemn  as  unsound  or  improper, 
or  as  in -any  way  failing  to  conform  to  the  drawings  and  specifications,  and  shall  make 
good  all  work  damaged  or  destroyed  thereby. 

ART.  V.  Should  the  Contractor  at  any  time  refuse  or  neglect  to  supply  a  suffi- 
ciency of  properly  skilled  workmen,  or  of  materials  of  the  proper  quality,  or  fail  in  any 
respect  to  prosecute  the  work  with  promptness  and  diligence,  or  fail  in  the  performance 
of  any  of  the  agreements  herein  contained,  such  refusal,  neglect  or  failure  being  certified 

by  the  Architect     ,  the  Owner     shall  be  at  liberty  after days'  written  notice  to 

the  Contractor  ,  to  provide  any  such  labor  or  materials,  and  to  deduct  the  cost  thereof, 
from  any  money  then  due  or  thereafter  to  become  due  to  the  Contractor  under  this  con- 
tract; and  if  the  Architect  shall  certify  that  such  refusal,  neglect  or  failure  is  sufficient 


APPENDIX  53 


ground  for  such  action,  the  Owner  shall  also  be  at  liberty  to  terminate  the  employment 
of  the  Contractor  for  the  said  work  and  to  enter  upon  the  premises  and  take  possession, 
for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  work  included  under  this  contract,  of  all  materials, 
tools  and  appliances  thereon,  and  to  employ  any  other  person  or  persons  to  finish  the 
work,  and  to  provide  the  materials  therefor;  and  in  case  of  such  discontinuance  of  the 

employment  of  the  Contractor     shall  not  be  entitled  to  receive  any  further 

payment  under  this  contract  until  the  said  work  shall  be  wholly  finished,  at  which  time,  if 
the  unpaid  balance  of  the-amount  to  be  paid  under  this  contract  shall  exceed  the  expense  in- 
curred by  the  Owner  in  finishing  the  work,  such  excess  shall  be  paid  by  the  Owner  to 
the  Contractor  ;  but  If  such  expense  shall  exceed  such  unpaid  balance,  the  Contractor 
shall  pay  the  difference  to  the  Owner  .  The  expense  incurred  by  the  Owner  as  herein 
provided,  either  for  furnishing  materials  or  for  finishing  the  work,  and  any  damage  in- 
curred through  such  default,  shall  be  audited  and  certified  by  the  Architect  ,  whose  cer- 
tificate thereof  shall  be  conclusive  upon  the  parties. 

ART.  VI.    The  Contractor     shall  complete  the  several  portions,  and  the  whole  of  the 
work  comprehended  in  this  agreement  by  and  at  the  time  or  times  hereinafter  stated ,  to  wit : 


ART.  VII.  Should  the  Contractor  be  delayed  in  the  prosecution  or  completion  of 
the  work  by  the  act,  neglect  or  default  of  the  Owner  ,  of  the  Architect  ,  or  of  any  other 
contractor  employed  by  the  Owner  upon  the  work,  or  by  any  damage  caused  by  fire, 

lightning,  earthquake,  cyclone  or  other  casualty  for  which  the  Contractor   - not 

responsible,  or  by  strikes  or  lockouts  caused  by  acts  of  employes,  then  the  time  herein 
fixed  for  the  completion  of  the  work  shall  be  extended  for  a  period  equivalent  to  the  time 
lost  by  reason  of  any  or  all  the  causes  aforesaid,  which  extended  period  shall  be  deter- 
mined and  fixed  by  the  Architect  ;  but  no  such  allowance  shall  be  made  unless  a  claim 
therefor  is  presented  in  writing  to  the  Architect  within  forty-eight  hours  of  the  occur- 
rence of  such  delay. 

ART.  VIII.  The  Owner  agree  to  provide  all  labor  and  materials  essential  to  the 
conduct  of  this  work  not  included  in  this  contract  in  such  manner  as  not  to  delay  its 
progress,  'and  in  the  event  of  failure  so  to  do,  thereby  causing  loss  to  the  Contractor  , 

agree    that will  reimburse  the  Contractor    for  such  loss;  and  the  Contractor 

agree     that  if .shall  delay  the  progress  of  the  work  so  as  to  cause  loss  for  which 

the  Owner    shall  become  liable,  then -..shall  reimburse  the  Owner    for  such  loss. 

Should  the  Owner  and  Contractor  fail  to  agree  as  to  the  amount  of  loss  comprehended 
in  this  Article,  the  determination  of  the  amount  shall  be  referred  to  arbitration  as  pro- 
vided in  Article  X^I  of  this  contract. 

ART.  IX.  It  is  hereby  mutually  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto  that  the  sum  to 
be  paid  by  the  Owner  to  the  Contractor  for  said  work  and  .materials  shall  be.- 


subject  to  additions  and  deductions  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and  that  such  sum  shall  be 
paid  by  the  Owner  to  the  Contractor  ,  in  current  funds,  and  only  upon  certificates  of 
the  Architect  ,  as  follows : 


The  final  payment  shall  be  made  within _ - days 

after  the  completion  of  the  work  included  in  this  contract,  and  all  payments  shall  be  due 
when  certificates  for  the  same  are  issued. 

If  at  any  time  there  shall  be  evidence  of  any  lien  or  claim  for  which,  if  established, 
the  Owner  of  the  said  premises  might  become  liable,  and  which  is  chargeable  to  the  Con- 
tractor ,the  Owner  shall  have  the  right  to  retain  out  of  any  payment  then  due  or 

thereafter  to  become  due  an  amount  sufficient  to  completely  indemnify 

against  such  lien  or  claim.  Should  there  prove  to  be  any  such  claim  after  all  payments 
are  made,  the  Contractor  shall  refund  to  the  Owner  all  moneys  that  the  latter  may  be 
compelled  to  pay  in  discharging  any  lien  on  said  premises  made  obligatory  in  consequence 
of  the  Contractor  default. 

ART.  X.  It  is  further  mutually  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto  that  no  certificate 
given  or  payment  made  under  this  contract,  except  the  final  certificate  or  final  payment, 
shall  be  conclusive  evidence  of  the  performance  of  this  contract,  either  wholly  or  in  part, 
and  that  no  payment  shall  be  construed  to  be  an  acceptance  of  defective  work  or  impropet 
materials. 


367 


54  APPENDIX 


ART.  XI.  The  Owner  shall  during  the  progress  of  the  work  maintain  insurance  on 

said  work,  in own  name  and  in  the  name  of  the  Contractor  ,  against 

loss  or  damage  by  fire,  lightning,  earthquake,  cyclone  or  other  casualty.  The  policies  to 
cover  all  work  incorporated  in  the  building,  and  all  materials  for  the  same  in  or  about 
the  premises,  and  shall  be  made  payable  to  the  parties  hereto,  as  their  interest  may 
appear. 

ART.  XII.  In  case  the  Owner  and  Contractor  fail  to  agree  in  relation  to  matters 
of  payment,  allowance  or  loss  referred  to  in  Arts.  Ill  or  VIII  of  this  contract,  or  should 
either  of  them  dissent  from  the  decision  of  the  Architect  referred  to  in  Art.  VII  of  this 
contract,  which  dissent  shall  have  been  filed  in  writing  With  the  Architect  within  ten 
days  of  the  announcement  of  such  decision,  then  the  matter  shall  be  referred  to  a  Board 

of  Arbitration  consisting  of — 

: in  behalf  of  the  Owner     ,  and 

in  behalf  of  the  Contractor     , 

these  two  to  select  a  third.  The  decision  of  any  two  of  this  Board  shall  be  final  and  bind- 
ing on  both  parties  hereto.  In  event  of  the  death  or  inability  to  serve  of  the  party  named 
in  behalf  of  the  Owner  ,  then  the  Owner  shall  select  a  person  in  his  place;  in  event  of 
the  death  or  inability  to  serve  of  the  party  named  in  behalf  of  the  Contractor  ,  then  the 
Contractor  shall  select  a  person  in  his  place ;  in  event  of  the  death  or  inability  to  serve 
of  the  third  party,  then  the  remaining  arbitrators  shall  choose  a  person  in  his  place. 
Each  party  hereto  shall  pay  one-half  of  the  expense  of  such  reference. 

ART.  XIII.  The  said  parties  for  themselves,  their  heirs,  successors,  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns,  do  hereby  agree  to  the  full  performance  of  the  covenants 
herein  contained. 

3>t  nQ9tfne08  ODJtJeteof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set  their 
hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

In  Presence  of 


APPENDIX   II. 

PROFESSIONAL   PRACTICE    OF    ARCHITECTS,   AND   SCHEDULE   OF   USUAL    AND 
PROPER  MINIMUM    CHARGES. 

Adopted  by  The  American  Institute  of  Architects  and  Revised  1903. 


The  architect's  professional  services  consist  in  making  the  necessary  preliminary 
studies,  working  drawings,  specifications,  large  scale  and  full  size  details,  and  in  the 
general  direction  and  supervision  of  the  work,  for  which  the  minimum  charge  is  five  per 
cent  upon  the  cost  of  the  work. 

For  new  buildings,  costing  less  than  ten  thousand  dollars,  and  for  furniture, 
monuments,  decorative  and  cabinet  work,  it  is  usual  and  proper  to  charge  a  special  fee 
in  excess  of  the  above. 

For  alterations  and  additions  to  existing  buildings,  the  fee  is  ten  per  cent  upon  the 
cost  of  the  work. 

Consultation  fees  for  professional  advice  are  to  be  paid  in  proportion  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  questions  involved. 

None  of  the  charges  above  enumerated  covers  alterations  and  additions  to  contracts, 
drawings  and  specifications,  nor  professional  or  legal  services  incidental  to  negotiations  for 
site,  disputed  party  walls,  right  of  light,  measurement  of  work,  or  failure  of  contractors. 
When  such  services  become  necessary,  they  shall  be  charged  for  according  to  the  time 
and  trouble  involved. 

Where  heating,  ventilating,  mechanical,  electrical  and  sanitary  problems  In  a 
building  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  the  assistance  of  a  specialist,  the  owner  is  to 


APPENDIX  65 


pay  for  such  assistance.  Chemical  and  mechanical  tests,  when  required,  are  to  be  paid 
for  by  the  owner. 

Necessary  traveling  expenses  are  to  be  paid  by  the  owner. 

Drawings  and  specifications,  as  instruments  of  service,  are  the  property  of  the 
architect. 

The  architect's  payments  are  due  as  his  work  progresses  in  the  following  order: 
Upon  completion  of  the  preliminary  sketches,  one-fifth  of  the  entire  fee;  upon  completion 
of  working  drawings  and  specifications,  two-fifths ;  the  remaining  two-fifths  being  due 
from  time  to  time  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  architect  in  his  office 
and  at  the  building. 

Until  an  actual  estimate  is  received,  the  charges  are  based  upon  the  proposed  cost 
of  the  work,  and  payments  are  received  as  installments  of  the  entire  fee,  which  is  based 
upon  the  actual  cost  to  the  owner  of  the  building  or  other  work,  when  completed,  including 
all  fixtures  necessary  to  render  it  fit  for  occupation.  The  architect  is  entitled  to  extra 
compensation  for  furniture  or  other  articles  purchased  under  his  direction. 

If  any  material  or  work  used  in  the  construction  of  the  building  be  already  upon  the 
ground  or  come  into  the  owner's  possession  without  expense  to  him,  its  value  is  to  be 
added  to  the  sum  actually  expended  upon  the  building  before  the  architect's  commission 
is  computed. 

In  case  of  the  abandonment  or  suspension  of  the  work,  the  basis  of  settlement  is  as 
follows :  Preliminary  studies,  a  fee  in  accordance  with  the  character  and  magnitude  of 
the  work;  preliminary  studies,  working  drawings  and  specifications,  three-fifths  of  the 
fee  for  complete  services. 

The  supervision  of  an  architect  (as  distinguished  from  the  continuous  personal  sup- 
erintendence which  may  be  secured  by  the  employment  of  a  clerk  of  the  works)  means 
such  inspection  by  the  architect,  or  his  deputy,  of  work  in  studios  and  shops,  or  of  a 
building  or  other  work  in  process  of  erection,  completion  or  alteration,  as  he  finds  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  whether  it  is  being  executed  in  conformity  with  his  drawings  and  speci- 
fications or  directions.  He  is  to  act  in  constructive  emergencies,  to  order  necessary 
changes  and  to  define  the  true  intent  and  meaning  of  the  drawings  and  specifications,  and 
he  has  authority  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  work  and  order  its  removal  when  not  In 
accordance  with  them. 

On  buildings  where  the  constant  services  of  a  superintendent  are  required,  a  clerk  of 
the  works  shall  be  employed  by  the  architect  at  the  owner's  expense. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 


PRACTICAL  TEST  QUESTIONS. 

in  the  foregoing  sections  of  this  Cyclopedia 
aurnerous  illustrative  examples  are  worked  out  in 
detail  in  order  to  show  the  application  of  the  various 
methods  and  principles.  Accompanying  these  are 
examples  for  practice  which  will  aid  the  reader  in 
fixing  the  principles  in  mind. 

In  the  following  pages  are  given  a  large  number 
of  test  questions  and  problems  which  afford  a  valu- 
able means  of  testing  the  reader's  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  treated.  They  will  be  found  excellent  prac- 
tice for  those  preparing  for  College,  Civil  Service, 
or  Engineer's  License.  In  some  cases  numerical 
\nswers  are  given  as  a  further  aid  in  this  work. 


371 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

Off     THE     S  TI  B  J  B3  O  T     OF1 

BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PART    I. 


1.  What  preparation   and   qualifications  are  essential  to  a 
superintendent  of  building  operations  ? 

2.  What  are  batter  boards,  and  how  should  they  be  prepared  ? 
What  is  a  bench  mark  ? 

3.  What  is  the  advantage  of  laying  a  rough  floor  in  buildings  ? 
Why  is  this  often  laid  diagonally  ? 

4.  How  much  larger  than  the  outside  of  the  wall  should  the 
excavation  of  a  cellar  be  carried  ?    Why  ? 

5.  How  far  apart  should  laths  be  spaced  ?    What  defects  war- 
rant the  rejection  of  laths  ? 

6.  What  should  the  priming  coat  of  paint  consist  of?    How 
should  knots  be  treated  before  priming  ? 

7.  What  is  the  position  of  the  architect,  as  superintendent, 
in  relation  to  the  owner  and  the  contractor  ? 

8.  Describe  the  peppermint  test  for  plumbing  pipes. 

9.  Show  by  a  sketch  the  difference  between  "  block  finish  "  and 
"  mitred  finish  ".    What  is  a  plinth  block  ? 

10.  What  must  be  considered  in  locating  a  dwelling? 

11.  What  is  a  loose-joint  butt  ?    A  loose-pin  butt  ? 

12.  What  should  be  the  area  of  the  cold  air  box  in  relation  to  the 
piping  to  registers  ? 

13.  What  particular  points  should  be  observed  in  the  inspection 
of  electric  light  wires  ? 

14.  How  should  the  connection  between  lead  and  iron  pipes  be 
made? 

15.  What  is  the  principal  objection  to  the  using  of  stock  doors  ? 

16.  What  makes  a  good  finish  for  hard  woods  ?    What  is  the 
purpose  of  a  "filler"? 


373 


REVIEW     QUESTIONS 

ON     THK     SUBJECT     OF1 

BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PART    II. 


1.  What  is  the  usual  arrangement  in  regard  to  use  of  party 
walls  ? 

2.  How  is  a  cellar  or  vault  wall  usually  protected  from  damp- 
ness?   What  material  is  to  be  preferred? 

3.  Describe    the    method     of    constructing    brick- veneered 
buildings. 

4.  How  is  ashlar  bonded,  and  what  must  be  observed  in 
backing  stone  with  bricks? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  "half-slating?"     Describe  the  appear- 
ance of  good  slates. 

6.  Describe  five  tools  used  in  stone  cutting. 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  common  defects  to  be  noted  in  the 
inspection  of  cut  stone? 

8.  What  is  a  good  proportion  for  cement  concrete? 

9.  Give  two  formulae  for  the  safe  load  on  piling.     What  con- 
dition of  moisture  is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  piling  ? 

10.  WTiat  is  a  rowlock  arch?     A  gauged  arch? 

11.  Describe   the   process   of  laying   bricks.     What   common 
practice  must  be  guarded  against? 

12.  How  are  cast-iron  columns  tested  ?     How  should  the  orna- 
mental caps  be  made? 

13.  What  is  broken  ashlar?    Make  simple  sketch. 

14.  Why  are  bricks  wet,  and  how  should  it  be  done? 

15.  Upon  what  does  the  strength  of  a  rubble  wall  mainly  de- 
pend?   What  is  coursed  rubble? 


374 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     THE     SUBJECT     OF 

CONTRACTS    AND    SPECIFICATIONS 

PART    I. 


1.  Describe  generally  the  province  of  the  specification. 

2.  Describe  generally  the  characteristics  of  the  specification. 

3.  Describe  generally  the  limits  of  the  specification. 

4.  State  the  nature  of  the  relationship  the  specification  should 
endeavor  to  establish  between  the  owner,  builder,  and  architect,  and 
how  such  relationships  are  to  be  encouraged  and  maintained. 

5.  How  do  specifications  affect  and  influence  the  cost  of  com- 
pleted work? 

6.  Describe  the  position  in  the  transaction  of  (a)  The  Owner, 
(b)  The  Contractor,  (c)  The  Specification  Writer. 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  a  contemplated  work  other  than  that 
stated  in  the  text  (preferably  of  some  simple  structure  familiar  to 
the  student,  as  the  home  he  lives  in,  or  a  neighboring  store  or  building 
to  which  he  has  access)  hereafter  called  the  "Student's  Scheme." 

8.  State  some  of  the  points  to  be  studied  in  connection  there- 
with before  the  specification  is  begun. 

9.  Why  should  a  specification  writer  make  a  special  study  of 
materials? 

10.  Describe  the  province  of  sand  in  mortar  and  how  you 
would  select  a  sand  for  use. 

11.  Describe  some  experiment,  other  than  those  given  in  the 
text,  which  would  throw  light  on  the  value  of  a  material  used  m  the 
4  Student's  Scheme." 


375 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     THE     SUBJECT     OF1 

CONTRACTS  AND    SPECIFICATIONS. 

PART   II. 


1.  What  is  a  Specification?    What  is  a  Contract? 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  general  functions  of  the  specification. 

3.  What  is  the  relation  between  the    specification    and  the 
working  drawings?    When  does  one  take  precedence  over  the  other? 

4.  Describe   briefly  the   relations,  first,  between  Owner  and 
Architect;  second,  between  Architect  and  Contractor;  third,  between 
Contractor  and  Owner. 

5.  Describe  different  ways  in  which  payment  may  be  arranged 
under  contract. 

6.  How  do  municipal  building  laws  affect  the  preparation  of 
specifications? 

7.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  requiring  the  Contractor  to 
warrant  portions  of  the  work? 

8.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  specifying 
by  means  of  notes  made  on  the  working  drawings? 

9.  What  are  the  general  principles   that    govern   in  case  of 
changes  being  made  in  the  specification  or  the  drawings  after  contract 
is  let?' 

10.  Describe  in  a  general  way  a  Specification  Reminder. 

11.  Prepare  a  Specification  Reminder  applicable  to  the  case  of 
some  structure  which  you  have  personally  observed. 

12.  Write  a  portion  of  a  specification,  setting  forth  the  general 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  Contractor. 


376 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS 

ON     THE     SUBJECT     OF1 

THE  ARCHITECT  IN  HIS  LEGAX, 
RELATIONS. 


1.  Supposing  an  architect  and  bis  client  have  bargained  for 
the  making  of  plans  alone.     The  owner  then  writes  to  the  archi- 
tect offering  to  pay  $250  for  plans  such  as  have  been  discussed. 
The  architect  writes  a  note  saying,  "  I  will  accept  your  offer  and 
will  make  the  plans  mentioned  for  $250".     This  note  the  archi- 
tect gives  to  his  office  boy,  who,  however,  never  delivers  it.     The 
architect,  in  ignorance  of  the  boy's  neglect,  makes  the  plans,  and 
offers  them  to  his  client  four  months  later      The  owner  refuses  to 
take  them  or  pay  for  them.     Was   there  any  contract  on  which 
the  architect  can  recover  ? 

2.  An  architectural  student,  twenty  years  of  age,  says  to  A: 
"When  I  begin  to  practice  my  profession  I  will  make  plans  for 
the  house  you  propose  to  build,  and  will  superintend  the  construction 
of  it.     I  will  charge  you.  $1,000  for  the  entire  work".|   Eighteen 
months  later,  he  begins  to  practice,  and  A  asks  him  to  carry  out 
his  agreement,  which  he  refuses  to  do.     Has  A  any  remedy  ? 

3.  Supposing  it  is  orally  agreed  between  A,  a  real  estate 
speculator,  and  B,  an  architect,  that  B  shall  give  his  entire  time  to 
A  in  designing  and  superintending  the  construction  of  houses  for 
the  period  of  three  years  for  a  salary  of  $2,000  a  year.     After  6 
months  of  work  by  B,  A  refuses   to  continue  the  contract  or  to 
pay  for  the  work  already  done.     Has  A  any  legal  remedy,  and  if 
so,  to  what  extent  ? 

4.  A,  the  owner  of  a  house,  orally  agrees  with  B,  an  archi- 
tect, that  on  a  day  two  months  distant,  B  shall  deliver  to  A  certain 


377 


LEGAL  RELATIONS 


plans  for  alterations  of  A's  house,  that  A  shall  thereupon  pay  $500 
for  the  plans;  and  that  thereafter  B  shall  superintend  the  altera- 
tions, which  are  to  be  finished  within  ten  months  from  the  date  of 
making  the  contract,  and  shall  be  paid  at  a  fixed  rate  for  his  time. 
On  the  date  agreed,  B,  although  he  has  not  finished  the  plans, 
demands  the  payment  of  the  agreed  sum.  This  is  refused,  and  he 
brings  suit  for  it.  Can  he  recover  ? 

5.  A,  the  agent  for  certain  building  material,  comes  to  B, 
a  contractor  who  is  building  a  block  on  his  own  account,  and  asks 
B  to  purchase  some  of  his  building  material  for  the  block,  repre- 
senting that  it  is  fireproof,  and  will  not  change  color  with  exposure. 
B,  believing  A's  representations,  makes  a  contract  for  a  certain 
amount  of  the  material.     Before  the  material  is  delivered,  B  makes 
experiments  and  finds  that  the  material  is  not  fireproof,  and  that 
it  does  change  color  with  exposure.    What  course  should  he  pursue  \ 

6.  A  and  B  make  an  agreement  for  the  construction  of  a 
building,  the  contract  price  being  agreed  upon  as  $5,000.     The 
contract  is  reduced  to  writing,  and  after  signing  it  B  finds  that  the 
price  was  inserted  as  $5,500.     He  asks  A  to  agree  to  change  the 
amount  to  conform  to  their  understanding,  and  B  refuses.     What 
course  should  B  pursue  ? 

7.  An  architect  is  called  upon  to  superintend  the  construc- 
tion of  a  building,  which  is  already  in  course  of  erection.     He  finds 
that  X  has  orally  agreed  to  guarantee  the  fulfilment  of  the  con- 
tract by  the  builder,  and  to  be  responsible  to  A,  the  owner,  for  any 
default  in  the  performance  of  the  builder's  contract.     The  architect 
is  also  asked  to  make  extensive  changes  in  the  plans,  agreed  to  by 
the  builder.     What  course  might  the  architect  recommend  in  order 

O 

to  enable  A  to  hold  X  responsible  as  surety  ? 

8.  If  an  architect  is  offered  a  rebate  for  his  own  benefit  on 
the  selling  price  of  building  material  to  be  used  in  a  client's  house, 
what  should  he  do  ? 

9.  A  directs  his  architect  to  find  out  the  best  terms  upon 
which  tiles  can  be  bought.     The  architect  secures  informal  bids, 
and  says  to  the  lowest  bidder  that  he  represents  A  in  the  matter, 
and  that  as  agent  of  A  he  will  take  a  certain  quantity  of  the  tiles 
at  the  price  named.     A  refuses  to  accept  the  tiles.     Has  the  seller 
any  remedy  (a)  against  A  ?     (b)  against  the  architect? 


378 


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